11.5.5 Specimen Preparation for X-ray Fluorescence 416 11.6 Advantages and Limitations 417 11.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 417 11.6.2 Detection limits 418 11.6.3 Quantitative Reliability 418 117 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry(AAS)and Atomic Emission Spectrometry(AES) 421 12.1 Introduction 421 12.2 Theory of Atomic Spectroscopy 421 12.2.1 Basic Principles 421 12.2.2 Fundamentals of Absorption and Emission 426 12.2. 2.1 Absorption 429 12.2.2.2 Line Broadening 430 12.2. 2.3 Self-absorption 431 12.2.2. 4 Ionisation 432 12.2.2.5 Dissociation 434 12.2.2.6 Radiation Sources and Atom Reservoirs 434 tomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)436 12.3.1 Introduction 436 12.3.2 Instrumentation 436 123. 2.1 Radiation Sources 437 12.3. 2.2 Atomisers 440 12.3.2.3 Optical Set-up and Components of Atomic Absorption Instruments 453 12.3.3 Spectral Interference 454 12.3.3.1 Origin of Spectral Interference 454 12.3.3. 2 Methods for Correcting for Spectral Interference 455 123.4 Chemical Interferences 462 12.3.4.1 The Formation of Compounds of Low Volatility 463 12. 3.4.2 Influence on Dissociation Equilibria 463 12.3.4.3 Ionisation in Flames 464 12.3.5 Data Treatment 465 12.3.5.1 Quantitative Analysis 465 12.3.6 Hyphenated Techniques 466 12.3.6.1 Gas Chromatography-Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 467 12.3.6.2 Liquid Chromatography-Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 469 12.3.7 Conclusion and Future Directions 470 tomic Emission Spectrometry(AES)471 12.4.1 Introduction 471 124.2 12. 4.2.1 Atomisation Devices 471 12.4. 2.2 Optical Set-up and Detection 480 12. 4.2.3 Instrumentation for Solid Sample Introduction 48311.5.5 Specimen Preparation for X-ray Fluorescence 416 11.6 Advantages and Limitations 417 11.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 417 11.6.2 Detection Limits 418 11.6.3 Quantitative Reliability 418 11.7 Summary 419 12 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and Atomic Emission Spectrometry (AES) 421 12.1 Introduction 421 12.2 Theory of Atomic Spectroscopy 421 12.2.1 Basic Principles 421 12.2.2 Fundamentals of Absorption and Emission 426 12.2.2.1 Absorption 429 12.2.2.2 Line Broadening 430 12.2.2.3 Self-absorption 431 12.2.2.4 Ionisation 432 12.2.2.5 Dissociation 434 12.2.2.6 Radiation Sources and Atom Reservoirs 434 12.3 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) 436 12.3.1 Introduction 436 12.3.2 Instrumentation 436 12.3.2.1 Radiation Sources 437 12.3.2.2 Atomisers 440 12.3.2.3 Optical Set-up and Components of Atomic Absorption Instruments 453 12.3.3 Spectral Interference 454 12.3.3.1 Origin of Spectral Interference 454 12.3.3.2 Methods for Correcting for Spectral Interference 455 12.3.4 Chemical Interferences 462 12.3.4.1 The Formation of Compounds of Low Volatility 463 12.3.4.2 Influence on Dissociation Equilibria 463 12.3.4.3 Ionisation in Flames 464 12.3.5 Data Treatment 465 12.3.5.1 Quantitative Analysis 465 12.3.6 Hyphenated Techniques 466 12.3.6.1 Gas Chromatography-Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 467 12.3.6.2 Liquid Chromatography-Atomic Absorption Spectrometry 469 12.3.7 Conclusion and Future Directions 470 12.4 Atomic Emission Spectrometry (AES) 471 12.4.1 Introduction 471 12.4.2 Instrumentation 471 12.4.2.1 Atomisation Devices 471 12.4.2.2 Optical Set-up and Detection 480 12.4.2.3 Instrumentation for Solid Sample Introduction 483 XII Contents