ACONF. 187/7 practice ofsituational crime prevention Crime opportunity of apartment buildings often find that their security theory has made many advances in the past decade, espe- measures are defeated by residents who dislike the incon- cially in the form of routine activities theory and rational venience of having to lock building entrances every time choice theory. Some important new theoretical insights they go in or out have been produced concerning the interaction of so-called 21. As situational prevention becomes more focused on achieving change in practices and products of business ar nationand inadequate parenting)and immediate situational industry that generate crime, it seems likely to encounter opportunities in producing crime. New concepts, such as resistance on grounds of cost. For example, retail stores repeat victimization, referring to the tendency for crime often resist advice about ways to reduce shoplifting Insurance companies may resist suggestions about tigh crime to be tightly clustered in particular places, have tening up procedures to check on fraudulent claims helped to focus situational prevention where it is likely to because checking costs them more than simply paying all be most effective. Finally, considerable progress has been claims with the minimum of checking. Vehicle manu- made in developing classifications and case studies of facturers resist consumer group pressure to improve the effective means of reducing crime opportunities security of cars on the grounds that there is little public demand for increased security. Ways of overcoming these VI. Implementation difficulties barriers to effective situational prevention are likely to be the focus of considerable discussion in the next phase in the development of situational prevention Implementation difficulties are broadly of two kinds (a)difficulties in persuading people to agree to the neces- sary measures; and (b)difficulties in getting agreed-upon VIL. Ethical issues rights and measures implemented correctly. These diffic culties are encountered in all forms of crime prevention and are often responsibilities (see below). In community development, as mentioned 22. Most of the ethical concerns expressed about crime above. most efforts to date have been focused on the prevention have been related to the situational approach second kind of implementation difficulty, achieving the rather than to the other approaches discussed here. This is necessary coordination among local agencies to implement because situational prevention seeks not to reduce criminal agreed-upon measures. The more difficult problem oflaun- motivation, but to reduce opportunities for crime. It is ching community development initiatives in the most dis- therefore seen as a fundamentally more repressive app tressed neighbourhoods, which lack human resources and roach than the others, and critics claim that the use of basic organizational capacity, has been largely avoided. In situational measures has many harmful consequences for social developmen t, the implementation difficulties are Society. These threats have been identified as follows presently focused on obtaining agreement about the neces (a) The use of target-hardening and access-control ity and feasibility of this approach to crime prevention. measures will lead to the development of a"fortress Subsequently, the issue of obtaining the needed resources society"in which people terrified of crime and distrustful will have to be faced In child development, the contro- of others barricade themselves in their homes. This will versies involve resource procurement and the ways in lead to the growing alienation of the population and the which crime prevention goals should be combined with the gradual destruction of community life other goals of child development. (b) The use of closed-circuit television and other 20. In situational prevention, both kinds of implemen- electronic means of surveillance fosters the development tance, various efforts to introduce gun controls in the result in the erosion of important civil liberties, and will tation difficulties have been widely encountered. For ins- ofauthoritarian, pervasive forms of social control United States, designed to reduce the opportunity for lethal ntly being resisted by the National rifle (e) The increased use of security guards and violence are curre private policing leads to the social exclusion of the Association and other members of the so-called gun lobby. homeless. minorities and unemployed young people from At the other end of the spectrum of seriousness, managersA/CONF.187/7 6 practice of situational crime prevention. Crime opportunity theory has made many advances in the past decade, espe￾cially in the form of routine activities theory and rational choice theory.7 Some important new theoretical insights have been produced concerning the interaction of so-called root causes of crime (such as social deprivation, discrimi￾nation and inadequate parenting) and immediate situational opportunities in producing crime. New concepts, such as “repeat victimization”, referring to the tendency for crime to be repeatedly visited on a small proportion of the total population,8 and “hot spots”, referring to the tendency for crime to be tightly clustered in particular places, have helped to focus situational prevention where it is likely to be most effective. Finally, considerable progress has been made in developing classifications and case studies of effective means of reducing crime opportunities. VI. Implementation difficulties 19. Implementation difficulties are broadly of two kinds: (a) difficulties in persuading people to agree to the neces￾sary measures; and (b) difficulties in getting agreed-upon measures implemented correctly. These difficulties are encountered in all forms of crime prevention and are often related to disputes about the ethical basis of the measures (see below). In community development, as mentioned above, most efforts to date have been focused on the second kind of implementation difficulty, achieving the necessary coordination among local agencies to implement agreed-upon measures. The more difficult problem of laun￾ching community development initiatives in the most dis￾tressed neighbourhoods, which lack human resources and basic organizational capacity, has been largely avoided. In social development, the implementation difficulties are presently focused on obtaining agreement about the neces￾sity and feasibility of this approach to crime prevention. Subsequently, the issue of obtaining the needed resources will have to be faced. In child development, the contro￾versies involve resource procurement and the ways in which crime prevention goals should be combined with the other goals of child development. 20. In situational prevention, both kinds of implemen￾tation difficulties have been widely encountered. For ins￾tance, various efforts to introduce gun controls in the United States, designed to reduce the opportunity for lethal violence, are currently being resisted by the National Rifle Association and other members of the so-called gun lobby. At the other end of the spectrum of seriousness, managers of apartment buildings often find that their security measures are defeated by residents who dislike the incon￾venience of having to lock building entrances every time they go in or out. 21. As situational prevention becomes more focused on achieving change in practices and products of business and industry that generate crime, it seems likely to encounter resistance on grounds of cost. For example, retail stores often resist advice about ways to reduce shoplifting because those methods also discourage impulse purchases. Insurance companies may resist suggestions about tigh￾tening up procedures to check on fraudulent claims because checking costs them more than simply paying all claims with the minimum of checking. Vehicle manu￾facturers resist consumer group pressure to improve the security of cars on the grounds that there is little public demand for increased security. Ways of overcoming these barriers to effective situational prevention are likely to be the focus of considerable discussion in the next phase in the development of situational prevention. VII. Ethical issues, rights and responsibilities 22. Most of the ethical concerns expressed about crime prevention have been related to the situational approach rather than to the other approaches discussed here. This is because situational prevention seeks not to reduce criminal motivation, but to reduce opportunities for crime. It is therefore seen as a fundamentally more repressive app￾roach than the others, and critics claim that the use of situational measures has many harmful consequences for society. These threats have been identified as follows: (a) The use of target-hardening and access-control measures will lead to the development of a “fortress society” in which people terrified of crime and distrustful of others barricade themselves in their homes. This will lead to the growing alienation of the population and the gradual destruction of community life; (b) The use of closed-circuit television and other electronic means of surveillance fosters the development of authoritarian, pervasive forms of social control and will result in the erosion of important civil liberties; (c) The increased use of security guards and private policing leads to the social exclusion of the homeless, minorities and unemployed young people from