182 M.Hesse,J.-P.RodrigueI Journal of Transport Geography 12 (2004)171-184 Table 1 Logistical friction Impedance factor Assessment measures Transport/logistics costs Distance,time,composition,transshipment,decomposition Supply chain complexity Number of suppliers,number of distribution centers,number of parts/variety of components Transactional environment Competition,(sub-)contracting,inter-firm relationships,power issues,(de-)regulation Physical environment Infrastructure supply,road bottlenecks and congestion,urban density,urban adjustments 5.Conclusion and outlook reportedly much higher than those of rail and waterway freight modes (INFRAS/IWW,2000),both in terms of This paper has argued that because of logistical absolute and specific numbers.Both dimensions integration,transport cannot be solely considered as a emphasize the need for policy and planning.With respect derived demand,but as an integrated demand where to these issues,a major requirement is improving the physical distribution and materials management are knowledge on the volume,composition and dynamics of interdependent.Since logistics emerged as a key orga- physical distribution at different geographical levels. nizational system for materials flow and goods delivery, Empirical evidence on the interactions of geographical and due to the outstanding growth of freight traffic in systems of production(firms)and systems of consump- the 1990s,contemporary analysis of logistics has to tion (urban regions)is thus required. acknowledge the character of distribution as a complex, Finally,theoretical considerations are also welcome in interdependent system.In this respect,a deeper geo- order to understand the degree of contemporary change graphical investigation is favored,since geographical more comprehensively.As this paper pointed out,com- approaches seem to be useful for covering the broader mon investigations of logistics and freight distribution interactions of firms and flows with their spatial envi- refer to the fragmentation of corporate activity in dif- ronments.Traditional transportation science tends to be ferent segments of the value chain and respective com- devoted primarily to transport capacities,to economic modity transfers.Since it represents more than just a issues or trade aspects.Compared to that,"looking metaphor,fragmentation often functions as a explana- through spatial lenses"promises a more comprehensive tory keyword in the context of post-fordism and flexible insight into the nature of distribution and its geo- specialization(see above);at least the general hypothesis graphical dimensions,particularly in those areas that are of flexibility as an overarching paradigm of re-structur- intensively shaped by freight traffic and logistics facili- ing seems to be convincing.Once freight transport and ties. logistics are analyzed as a derived demand,they appear Due to the current lack of comprehensive under- accordingly:segmented and flexible,highly adjusted to standing freight and distribution,future research should the specialized demand of shippers and receivers,repre- address this issue.First and foremost,there is a need for senting functional and organizational compartments empirical investigation:Since distribution is closely re- rather than an all-embracing structure. lated with the entire value chain,logistics interdepen- dencies with production systems and networks,with wholesale and retail markets are relevant subjects of Acknowledgements research.This means to study the degree to which logistics principles and requirements are becoming The authors would like to thank two anonymous decisive for organizational or locational decisions of referees for useful comments such firms.How do certain actors within the chain interact with locations?How is the physical space interwoven with informational structures?How far is References distribution linked to the "social systems of production" (Hollingsworth and Boyer,1997),e.g.regarding the Abbey,D.,Twist,D.,Koonmen,L.,2001.The need for speed:impact labor issue?Answering these questions remains a chal- on supply chain real estate.AMB Investment Management,Inc. White Paper,p.1. lenge as most of the empirical evidence is proprietary Abernathy.F.,Dunlop,J..Hammond,J..Weil,D.,2000.Retailing and therefore can only be reported indirectly. and supply chains in the information age.Technology in Society Second,freight transport is likely to consume an 22,5-31. increasing amount of energy and land,and it contributes Bovet,D.,Martha,J.,2000.Value Nets.Breaking the Supply chain to to a wide range of problems such as air and noise emis- Unlock Hidden Profits.Wiley,New York. Bowersox,D.,Smykay,E..LaLonde,B.,1968.Physical distribution sions,congestion,traffic fatalities,etc.Social costs management.In:Logistics Problems of the Firm.MacMillan,New associated with road and air freight transport are York/London.5. Conclusion and outlook This paper has argued that because of logistical integration, transport cannot be solely considered as a derived demand, but as an integrated demand where physical distribution and materials management are interdependent. Since logistics emerged as a key orga￾nizational system for materials flow and goods delivery, and due to the outstanding growth of freight traffic in the 1990s, contemporary analysis of logistics has to acknowledge the character of distribution as a complex, interdependent system. In this respect, a deeper geo￾graphical investigation is favored, since geographical approaches seem to be useful for covering the broader interactions of firms and flows with their spatial envi￾ronments. Traditional transportation science tends to be devoted primarily to transport capacities, to economic issues or trade aspects. Compared to that, ‘‘looking through spatial lenses’’ promises a more comprehensive insight into the nature of distribution and its geo￾graphical dimensions, particularly in those areas that are intensively shaped by freight traffic and logistics facili￾ties. Due to the current lack of comprehensive under￾standing freight and distribution, future research should address this issue. First and foremost, there is a need for empirical investigation: Since distribution is closely re￾lated with the entire value chain, logistics interdepen￾dencies with production systems and networks, with wholesale and retail markets are relevant subjects of research. This means to study the degree to which logistics principles and requirements are becoming decisive for organizational or locational decisions of such firms. How do certain actors within the chain interact with locations? How is the physical space interwoven with informational structures? How far is distribution linked to the ‘‘social systems of production’’ (Hollingsworth and Boyer, 1997), e.g. regarding the labor issue? Answering these questions remains a chal￾lenge as most of the empirical evidence is proprietary and therefore can only be reported indirectly. Second, freight transport is likely to consume an increasing amount of energy and land, and it contributes to a wide range of problems such as air and noise emis￾sions, congestion, traffic fatalities, etc. Social costs associated with road and air freight transport are reportedly much higher than those of rail and waterway freight modes (INFRAS/IWW, 2000), both in terms of absolute and specific numbers. Both dimensions emphasize the need for policy and planning. With respect to these issues, a major requirement is improving the knowledge on the volume, composition and dynamics of physical distribution at different geographical levels. Empirical evidence on the interactions of geographical systems of production (firms) and systems of consump￾tion (urban regions) is thus required. Finally, theoretical considerations are also welcome in order to understand the degree of contemporary change more comprehensively. As this paper pointed out, com￾mon investigations of logistics and freight distribution refer to the fragmentation of corporate activity in dif￾ferent segments of the value chain and respective com￾modity transfers. Since it represents more than just a metaphor, fragmentation often functions as a explana￾tory keyword in the context of post-fordism and flexible specialization (see above); at least the general hypothesis of flexibility as an overarching paradigm of re-structur￾ing seems to be convincing. Once freight transport and logistics are analyzed as a derived demand, they appear accordingly: segmented and flexible, highly adjusted to the specialized demand of shippers and receivers, repre￾senting functional and organizational compartments rather than an all-embracing structure. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank two anonymous referees for useful comments. References Abbey, D., Twist, D., Koonmen, L., 2001. The need for speed: impact on supply chain real estate. AMB Investment Management, Inc. White Paper, p. 1. Abernathy, F., Dunlop, J., Hammond, J., Weil, D., 2000. Retailing and supply chains in the information age. Technology in Society 22, 5–31. Bovet, D., Martha, J., 2000. Value Nets. Breaking the Supply chain to Unlock Hidden Profits. Wiley, New York. Bowersox, D., Smykay, E., LaLonde, B., 1968. Physical distribution management. In: Logistics Problems of the Firm. MacMillan, New York/London. Table 1 Logistical friction Impedance factor Assessment measures Transport/logistics costs Distance, time, composition, transshipment, decomposition Supply chain complexity Number of suppliers, number of distribution centers, number of parts/variety of components Transactional environment Competition, (sub-) contracting, inter-firm relationships, power issues, (de-) regulation Physical environment Infrastructure supply, road bottlenecks and congestion, urban density, urban adjustments 182 M. Hesse, J.-P. Rodrigue / Journal of Transport Geography 12 (2004) 171–184