PART ONE INTRODUCTION HOW THE ECONOMY AS A WHOLE WORKS We started by discussing how individuals make decisions and then looked at how people interact with one another. All these decisions and interactions together make up"the economy. The last three principles concern the workings of the economy as a whole PRINCIPLE 8: A COUNTRYS STANDARD OF LIVING DEPENDS ON ITS ABILITY TO PRODUCE GOODS AND SERVICES The differences in living standards around the world are staggering. In 1997 the average American had an income of about $29,000. In the same year, the average Mexican earned $8,000, and the average Nigerian earned $900. Not surprisingly, this large variation in average income is reflected in various measures of the qual ity of life. Citizens of high-income countries have more TV sets, more cars, better nutrition, better health care, and longer life expectancy than citizens of low-income countries Changes in living standards over time are also large. In the United States, Over the past century, average income has risen about eightfold What explains these large differences in living standards among countries and over time? The answer is surprisingly simple. Almost all variation in living stan- productivity dards is attributable to differences in countries' productivity-that is, the amount the amount of goods and services of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker's time In nations produced from each hour of a where workers can produce a large quantity of goods and services per unit of time, woorker's time most people enjoy a high standard of living; in nations where workers are less of a n people must endure a more meager existence. Similarly, the growth rate of a nations productivity determines the growth rate of its average The fundamental relationship between productivity and living standards is simple, but its implications are far-reaching. If productivity is the primary deter minant of living standards, other explanations must be of secondary importance For example, it might be tempting to credit labor unions or minimum-wage laws for the rise in living standards of American workers over the past century. Yet the real hero of American workers is their rising productivity. As another example, some commentators have claimed that increased competition from Japan and other countries explains the slow growth in U.S. incomes over the past 30 years Yet the real villain is not competition from abroad but flagging productivity The relationship between productivity and living standards also has profound implications for public policy. When thinking about how any policy will affect liv- ing standards, the key question is how it will affect our ability to produce goods and services. To boost living standards, policymakers need to raise productivity by ensuring that workers are well educated, have the tools needed to produce goods12 PART ONE INTRODUCTION HOW THE ECONOMY AS A WHOLE WORKS We started by discussing how individuals make decisions and then looked at how people interact with one another. All these decisions and interactions together make up “the economy.” The last three principles concern the workings of the economy as a whole. PRINCIPLE #8: A COUNTRY’S STANDARD OF LIVING DEPENDS ON ITS ABILITY TO PRODUCE GOODS AND SERVICES The differences in living standards around the world are staggering. In 1997 the average American had an income of about $29,000. In the same year, the average Mexican earned $8,000, and the average Nigerian earned $900. Not surprisingly, this large variation in average income is reflected in various measures of the qual￾ity of life. Citizens of high-income countries have more TV sets, more cars, better nutrition, better health care, and longer life expectancy than citizens of low-income countries. Changes in living standards over time are also large. In the United States, incomes have historically grown about 2 percent per year (after adjusting for changes in the cost of living). At this rate, average income doubles every 35 years. Over the past century, average income has risen about eightfold. What explains these large differences in living standards among countries and over time? The answer is surprisingly simple. Almost all variation in living stan￾dards is attributable to differences in countries’ productivity—that is, the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time. In nations where workers can produce a large quantity of goods and services per unit of time, most people enjoy a high standard of living; in nations where workers are less productive, most people must endure a more meager existence. Similarly, the growth rate of a nation’s productivity determines the growth rate of its average income. The fundamental relationship between productivity and living standards is simple, but its implications are far-reaching. If productivity is the primary deter￾minant of living standards, other explanations must be of secondary importance. For example, it might be tempting to credit labor unions or minimum-wage laws for the rise in living standards of American workers over the past century. Yet the real hero of American workers is their rising productivity. As another example, some commentators have claimed that increased competition from Japan and other countries explains the slow growth in U.S. incomes over the past 30 years. Yet the real villain is not competition from abroad but flagging productivity growth in the United States. The relationship between productivity and living standards also has profound implications for public policy. When thinking about how any policy will affect liv￾ing standards, the key question is how it will affect our ability to produce goods and services. To boost living standards, policymakers need to raise productivity by ensuring that workers are well educated, have the tools needed to produce goods and services, and have access to the best available technology. productivity the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time