316 D.Lin,D.Simmons Tourism Management 63 (2017)315-328 In China,public participation in tourism planning has drawn particular,we demonstrate how the ITDP has been formulated and increasing academic attention since the 1990s.Particular attention implemented through structuralized inter-organizational collabo- has been paid to addressing normative elements with a particular ration.The paper concludes by reflecting on this study's key find focus on developing tools and techniques for participation,and ings,contributions to knowledge,and implications for future providing constructive suggestions on the management of the research. engagement processes(e.g..Bao Sun,2003:Wang Zhou,2003: Ye.2012:Zhang Wu.2002).Recent case studies,however, 2.Theory demonstrate that state-centric,top-down participative decision- making has not gained wide acceptance in practice.Instead. 2.1.Sustainable tourism and collaborative planning:the various forms of bottom-up (pro)active involvement of local engagement of stakeholders in tourism development communities and economic (private)operators are becoming evident,no matter whether it is around the organization of mega- In response to the well socialized concept of "sustainable events (e.g.,Lamberti,Noci,Guo,Zhu,2011).promoting rural development"in the wake of the report,Our Common Future tourism (Ying Zhou,2007),or demonstrating distinctive Chinese (Brundtland World Commission,1987),sustainable tourism can characteristics (Li Zhao,2001).Such practices are commonly be seen as"linked with the preservation of ecosystems,the pro- characterized by dynamic,multi-actor interactions,complex power motion of human welfare,inter-and intra-generational equity,and differentials and uneven exchanges of resources and information public participation in decision-making"(Bramwell,2015,p.204). between actors and agencies.Although these features have been The concept of sustainable tourism covers a broad spectrum,from partially investigated (e.g.,Lin Bao.2015),there remains the need "light green"variants of sustainability to "dark green"sustainable for further exploration of the nature and effectiveness of public tourism (Harris,Griffin,Williams,2002).These various de- participation by destination stakeholders in formulating and scriptions of different commitments to sustainable tourism sup- implementing tourism planning within the contemporary Chinese ports the broad recognition of the concept as an attractive notion social,economic and political context (Wang,Yang,Chen,Yang. emphasizing balanced development which covers ecological,social Li,2010:Ying.Jiang.Zhou,2015). and economic sustainability. Our case-study of Jiaochangwei is emblematic of issues cited Attempts to move sustainable tourism from ideology to imple- above.Jiaochangwei Bed and Breakfast Destination(JCW)is located mentation have called for practices that pay more attention to on the Dapeng Peninsula,which is approximately 50 km away from justice,equity and democracy in planning and policymaking Shenzhen city center in southern China.Covering an area of 54 ha, (Dredge,2006,p.562).Planning has played a significant role in this destination is the only well-preserved indigenous coastal tourism development at destinations due to its abilities to integrate village on the city's Peninsula.As of the end of April 2015,there tourism and other sectors,shape and control physical patterns of were a total of more than 350 re-decorated local inns,accommo- development,conserve significant resources and even provide dating approximately 15 million annual tourist arrivals.The JCW frameworks for "selling"destinations (Williams,1998).For a has now become Shenzhen's favored BB destination and will considerable length of time,tourism planning followed the elite become an important part of the proposed 'Long Qi Bay'5A-level dominant,linear,and rational planning paradigm(Williams,1998). scenic attractions.The success of the JCW has been regarded by which ignores value differentiations among stakeholders.The many as the result of the JCW Bed and Breakfast Tourism Desti- implementation of sustainable tourism however compels nation Plan (TDP).which was officially launched by the Shenzhen acknowledgement of these various values and searches for suitable Municipal Government in September 2013.In contrast to tradi- ways of balancing their interests in the planning of tourism desti- tional top-down planning processes,this plan has been widely nations.Among these endeavors,stakeholder participation and regarded as a bottom-up planning process supported by the active empowerment in planning are regarded as crucial elements within participation of local people. all planning stages including the identification of problems. This paper's objectives are therefore threefold:(1)to provide decision-making and implementation (Araujo Bramwell,1999: theoretical explanations of public participation in tourism planning Murphy,1988:Simmons,1994).This in turn is argued to enhance in China through an examination of the formulation and imple- their ability to manage and respond to unpredictable circumstances mentation process of the JTDP;(2)to reflect on what the JTDP case (Jurowski et al.,1997).and support the broader objectives of sus- reveals about the nature for public participation in tourism plan- tainable tourism (France,1998). ning in China;and(3)to discuss more broadly how the Chinese Public participation in decision-making has been widely dis case contributes to the theory of participatory planning in tourism. cussed in the planning literature.In her typology of participation, The development and implementation of the ITDP reflects the use Arnstein (1969)indicates three levels of citizens'involvement:non- of public participation to support both the formulation and participation (Manipulation Therapy),tokenism (Informing. implementation of an official tourism plan.Rather than simply read Consultation &Placation)and citizen power (Partnership,Dele- the case of jTDP as an example of the exercise of public participa gated Power Citizen Control).These three levels of participation tion in tourism planning.we suggest that the form it took reflects a were further developed into five stages by IAP2 in 2000,identified more nuanced story about the uneven distribution of both the as:informing,consulting,engaging,collaborating,and empower- power of individual stakeholders involved and networks in plan- ing (IAP2,2000).In line with research on community participation ning and policy processes. in the field of development studies,Tosun proposes three different This paper is structured as follows.We begin by reviewing forms of public participation in tourism planning (1999):pseudo- recent debates and literature in stakeholder theory,social network community participation,passive community participation,and theory,and governance theory to establish an analytical framework spontaneous community participation.For Tosun (1999),collabo- through which to understand the nature of participation in tourism rative planning,which is based on the work of Habermas(1984),is planning.We then move on to the ITDP case study in Shenzhen, an effective public participation process that make the tourism China.Our analysis commences with a brief introduction to the planning process more effective,equitable and legitimate. participatory processes of the JTDP in respect of its origins,ratio- Over time,collaborative planning has gained increasing atten- nales and outcomes.We analyze the stakeholders involved in the tion within tourism research and practice(e.g..Bramwell Lane, planning process and identify how they relate to each other.In 2000:Bramwell Sharman,1999;Jamal Getz,1995).In aIn China, public participation in tourism planning has drawn increasing academic attention since the 1990s. Particular attention has been paid to addressing normative elements with a particular focus on developing tools and techniques for participation, and providing constructive suggestions on the management of the engagement processes (e.g., Bao & Sun, 2003; Wang & Zhou, 2003; Ye, 2012; Zhang & Wu, 2002). Recent case studies, however, demonstrate that state-centric, top-down participative decision￾making has not gained wide acceptance in practice. Instead, various forms of bottom-up (pro) active involvement of local communities and economic (private) operators are becoming evident, no matter whether it is around the organization of mega￾events (e.g., Lamberti, Noci, Guo, & Zhu, 2011), promoting rural tourism (Ying & Zhou, 2007), or demonstrating distinctive Chinese characteristics (Li & Zhao, 2001). Such practices are commonly characterized by dynamic, multi-actor interactions, complex power differentials and uneven exchanges of resources and information between actors and agencies. Although these features have been partially investigated (e.g., Lin & Bao, 2015), there remains the need for further exploration of the nature and effectiveness of public participation by destination stakeholders in formulating and implementing tourism planning within the contemporary Chinese social, economic and political context (Wang, Yang, Chen, Yang, & Li, 2010; Ying, Jiang, & Zhou, 2015). Our case-study of Jiaochangwei is emblematic of issues cited above. Jiaochangwei Bed and Breakfast Destination (JCW) is located on the Dapeng Peninsula, which is approximately 50 km away from Shenzhen city center in southern China. Covering an area of 54 ha, this destination is the only well-preserved indigenous coastal village on the city's Peninsula. As of the end of April 2015, there were a total of more than 350 re-decorated local inns, accommo￾dating approximately 15 million annual tourist arrivals. The JCW has now become Shenzhen's favored B & B destination and will become an important part of the proposed ‘Long Qi Bay’ 5A-level scenic attractions. The success of the JCW has been regarded by many as the result of the JCW Bed and Breakfast Tourism Desti￾nation Plan (JTDP), which was officially launched by the Shenzhen Municipal Government in September 2013. In contrast to tradi￾tional top-down planning processes, this plan has been widely regarded as a bottom-up planning process supported by the active participation of local people. This paper's objectives are therefore threefold: (1) to provide theoretical explanations of public participation in tourism planning in China through an examination of the formulation and imple￾mentation process of the JTDP; (2) to reflect on what the JTDP case reveals about the nature for public participation in tourism plan￾ning in China; and (3) to discuss more broadly how the Chinese case contributes to the theory of participatory planning in tourism. The development and implementation of the JTDP reflects the use of public participation to support both the formulation and implementation of an official tourism plan. Rather than simply read the case of JTDP as an example of the exercise of public participa￾tion in tourism planning, we suggest that the form it took reflects a more nuanced story about the uneven distribution of both the power of individual stakeholders involved and networks in plan￾ning and policy processes. This paper is structured as follows. We begin by reviewing recent debates and literature in stakeholder theory, social network theory, and governance theory to establish an analytical framework through which to understand the nature of participation in tourism planning. We then move on to the JTDP case study in Shenzhen, China. Our analysis commences with a brief introduction to the participatory processes of the JTDP in respect of its origins, ratio￾nales and outcomes. We analyze the stakeholders involved in the planning process and identify how they relate to each other. In particular, we demonstrate how the JTDP has been formulated and implemented through structuralized inter-organizational collabo￾ration. The paper concludes by reflecting on this study's key find￾ings, contributions to knowledge, and implications for future research. 2. Theory 2.1. Sustainable tourism and collaborative planning: the engagement of stakeholders in tourism development In response to the well socialized concept of “sustainable development” in the wake of the report, Our Common Future (Brundtland & World Commission, 1987), sustainable tourism can be seen as “linked with the preservation of ecosystems, the pro￾motion of human welfare, inter- and intra-generational equity, and public participation in decision-making” (Bramwell, 2015, p. 204). The concept of sustainable tourism covers a broad spectrum, from “light green” variants of sustainability to “dark green” sustainable tourism (Harris, Griffin, & Williams, 2002). These various de￾scriptions of different commitments to sustainable tourism sup￾ports the broad recognition of the concept as an attractive notion emphasizing balanced development which covers ecological, social and economic sustainability. Attempts to move sustainable tourism from ideology to imple￾mentation have called for practices that pay more attention to justice, equity and democracy in planning and policymaking (Dredge, 2006, p. 562). Planning has played a significant role in tourism development at destinations due to its abilities to integrate tourism and other sectors, shape and control physical patterns of development, conserve significant resources and even provide frameworks for “selling” destinations (Williams, 1998). For a considerable length of time, tourism planning followed the elite dominant, linear, and rational planning paradigm (Williams, 1998), which ignores value differentiations among stakeholders. The implementation of sustainable tourism however compels acknowledgement of these various values and searches for suitable ways of balancing their interests in the planning of tourism desti￾nations. Among these endeavors, stakeholder participation and empowerment in planning are regarded as crucial elements within all planning stages including the identification of problems, decision-making and implementation (Araujo & Bramwell, 1999; Murphy, 1988; Simmons, 1994). This in turn is argued to enhance their ability to manage and respond to unpredictable circumstances (Jurowski et al., 1997), and support the broader objectives of sus￾tainable tourism (France, 1998). Public participation in decision-making has been widely dis￾cussed in the planning literature. In her typology of participation, Arnstein (1969) indicates three levels of citizens' involvement: non￾participation (Manipulation & Therapy), tokenism (Informing, Consultation &Placation) and citizen power (Partnership, Dele￾gated Power & Citizen Control). These three levels of participation were further developed into five stages by IAP2 in 2000, identified as: informing, consulting, engaging, collaborating, and empower￾ing (IAP2, 2000). In line with research on community participation in the field of development studies, Tosun proposes three different forms of public participation in tourism planning (1999): pseudo￾community participation, passive community participation, and spontaneous community participation. For Tosun (1999), collabo￾rative planning, which is based on the work of Habermas (1984), is an effective public participation process that make the tourism planning process more effective, equitable and legitimate. Over time, collaborative planning has gained increasing atten￾tion within tourism research and practice (e.g., Bramwell & Lane, 2000; Bramwell & Sharman, 1999; Jamal & Getz, 1995). In a 316 D. Lin, D. Simmons / Tourism Management 63 (2017) 315e328