Prot et al. cooperation,and sharing,in cross-sectional.longitudinal are posited to affect behavior through long-term changes and experimental studies.Other studies have shown sig- in beliefs,attitudes,behavioral scripts,and affective traits. Detween watching prosocial tele Although effects of prosocial media have een dem (8 Experimental studies have demonstrated short-term sses underlying the effects of violent media (e.g causal effects of prosocial media.For example,Greitemeyer DaeEparpanoS eperiments.and come to the aid of a female experimenter effects of prosocial media on helping using diverse sam who was being harassed by an ex-boyfriend. s,manipulations,and measures (Barlett Anderson uggest that habitual use of pro 2009G of pre Br prosocial-video-game play predicted increases in pro no studies have examined long- erm mediators of proso cial behavior over a period of 3 to 4 months.D.R. cial media's effects on helping.Empirical evidence con Anderson et al.(2000) found that children who Blue's Ches tat age Togcther.corrclational.experimental and longitudinal nificantly moderate the effects of media violence ce studies in this area provide evidence that prosocial media C.A.Anderson et al..2003:C.A.Anderson,Gentile, have effects on prosocial behavior. Buckley.2007).the meta-analysis by C.A.An erson et al of e e an be understoo ture eral age ests that effects of Barlett Anderson,2013:Buckley Anderson. 2006 prosocial media may also be similar across cultures,but Gentile,Groves,&Gentile,in press;Maier&Gentile no comparable data are as yet available to test this The gener a metathe eoretic pre cted twe social medias social-cognitive theory (Bandura,1973,1983).script the- effects on helping.Study 1 examined relations among 1986. 1998) cognitive-neoassociation prosocial-media use,empathy,and helping in samples 9 eory (Comstoc seven countrie zed t greater pro ld Bushman 2007 and th helpi gde ned here as yolunta processing theory (Crick Dodge,1994).It provides a benefit another person)and that this effect would be at understanding how long-term least partially mediated by empathy (the tendency to be from ware of and emental and notional states o to the eral learning nd s fin from environmental interactions.including from the short-term contexts (e.g..Greitemeyer.2009:Greitemever media,and they do so through several learning mecha- et al.,2010),we focused on empathy as a potential key sms.Media conte ermines much of what s learne I-mec red g ong als nd d th social behavior because of changes in attitudes.belief tors.On the basis of the general learning model.w affect,and scripts.Prosocial media are expected to expected that the effects of prosocial media on empathy aggression and increa 【he and prosocial behavior would generalize across gender ht t cial an violent-media use.empathy.and helping in a longitudi ing positive affect(Saleem et al.,2012a;Saleem,Anderson, nal sample of 3.034 children and adoles ents measured Gentile,2012b).In long-term contexts,prosocial media three times over a period of 2 years.The longitudina2 Prot et al. cooperation, and sharing, in cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental studies. Other studies have shown sig￾nificant associations between watching prosocial televi￾sion programs and performing prosocial acts in real life (e.g., Rosenkoetter, 1999; Sprafkin & Rubinstein, 1979). Experimental studies have demonstrated short-term causal effects of prosocial media. For example, Greitemeyer and Osswald (2010) showed that playing prosocial video games made participants more likely to help researchers pick up fallen pencils, agree to participate in further experiments, and come to the aid of a female experimenter who was being harassed by an ex-boyfriend. Longitudinal studies suggest that habitual use of pro￾social media can cause long-term increases in prosocial behavior. Gentile et al. (2009) found that the amount of prosocial-video-game play predicted increases in proso￾cial behavior over a period of 3 to 4 months. D. R. Anderson et al. (2000) found that children who watched the television show Blue’s Clues showed significantly greater increases in prosocial behaviors than nonviewers. Together, correlational, experimental, and longitudinal studies in this area provide evidence that prosocial media have effects on prosocial behavior. These effects can be understood within the framework of the general learning model, an extension of the gen￾eral aggression model (C. A. Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Barlett & Anderson, 2013; Buckley & Anderson, 2006; Gentile, Groves, & Gentile, in press; Maier & Gentile, 2012). The general learning model is a metatheoretical framework that integrates key ideas from several more specific models, including social learning theory and social-cognitive theory (Bandura, 1973, 1983), script the￾ory (Huesmann, 1986, 1998), cognitive-neoassociation theory (Berkowitz, 1984), cultivation theory (Comstock & Scharrer, 2007), desensitization theory (Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman, 2007), and social information￾processing theory (Crick & Dodge, 1994). It provides a general framework for understanding how long-term beliefs, attitudes, and affective traits are developed from various life experiences. According to the general learning model, people learn from environmental interactions, including from the media, and they do so through several learning mecha￾nisms. Media content determines much of what is learned. Violent media are likely to increase the probability of aggressive behavior and decrease the probability of pro￾social behavior because of changes in attitudes, beliefs, affect, and scripts. Prosocial media are expected to decrease the likelihood of aggression and increase the likelihood of prosocial behavior. In short-term contexts, prosocial media are thought to affect behavior by prim￾ing prosocial cognitions (including scripts) and increas￾ing positive affect (Saleem et al., 2012a; Saleem, Anderson, & Gentile, 2012b). In long-term contexts, prosocial media are posited to affect behavior through long-term changes in beliefs, attitudes, behavioral scripts, and affective traits. Although effects of prosocial media have been dem￾onstrated, processes underlying these effects have been less extensively researched and are less understood than processes underlying the effects of violent media (e.g., C. A. Anderson et al., 2003). At present, there is empirical support for short-term predictions of the general learning model concerning prosocial media’s effects; several experimental studies have demonstrated short-term effects of prosocial media on helping using diverse sam￾ples, manipulations, and measures (Barlett & Anderson, 2013). These studies point to empathy as a key mediator of short-term effects of prosocial media (Greitemeyer, 2009; Greitemeyer, Osswald, & Brauer, 2010). However, no studies have examined long-term mediators of proso￾cial media’s effects on helping. Empirical evidence con￾cerning potential moderators of these relationships is also lacking. Whereas some studies suggest that age, cul￾ture, and parental involvement in media habits may sig￾nificantly moderate the effects of media violence (e.g., C. A. Anderson et al., 2003; C. A. Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007), the meta-analysis by C. A. Anderson et al. (2010) did not show significant effects of culture or age on the effect sizes for the effects of violent media on prosocial behavior. This evidence suggests that effects of prosocial media may also be similar across cultures, but no comparable data are as yet available to test this prediction. To address these gaps, we conducted two studies on potential mediators and moderators of prosocial media’s effects on helping. Study 1 examined relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and helping in samples from seven countries. We hypothesized that greater pro￾social-media use would be associated with more frequent helping (defined here as voluntary behavior intended to benefit another person) and that this effect would be at least partially mediated by empathy (the tendency to be aware of and react to the mental and emotional states of other people; Davis, 1983). Given past findings of proso￾cial media’s effects on empathy and prosocial behavior in short-term contexts (e.g., Greitemeyer, 2009; Greitemeyer et al., 2010), we focused on empathy as a potential key mediator of the effects of habitual prosocial-media use on prosocial behavior in the long term. Study 1 also explored gender, age, and culture as potential modera￾tors. On the basis of the general learning model, we expected that the effects of prosocial media on empathy and prosocial behavior would generalize across gender, age, and culture. Study 2 examined relations among prosocial- and violent-media use, empathy, and helping in a longitudi￾nal sample of 3,034 children and adolescents measured three times over a period of 2 years. The longitudinal Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on December 17, 2013