STATE POWER AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE 325 with reductions of duties and other barriers to trade.In 1846 the abolition of the Corn Laws ended agricultural protectionism.France reduced duties on some intermediate goods in the 1830's,and on coal, iron,and steel in 1852.The Zollverein established fairly low tariffs in 1834.Belgium,Portugal,Spain,Piedmont,Norway,Switzerland, and Sweden lowered imposts in the 1850's.The golden age of free trade began in 1860,when Britain and France signed the Cobden- Chevalier Treaty,which virtually eliminated trade barriers.This was followed by a series of bilateral trade agreements between virtually all European states.It is important to note,however,that the United States took little part in the general movement toward lower trade barriers." The movement toward greater liberality was reversed in the late 187o's.Austria-Hungary increased duties in 1876 and 1878,and Italy also in 1878;but the main breach came in Germany in 1879.France increased tariffs modestly in 1881,sharply in 1892,and raised them still further in IgIo.Other countries followed a similar pattern.Only Great Britain,Belgium,the Netherlands,and Switzerland continued to follow free-trade policies through the 1880's.Although Britain did not herself impose duties,she began establishing a system of prefer- ential markets in her overseas Empire in 1898.The United States was basically protectionist throughout the nineteenth century.The high tariffs imposed during the Civil War continued with the exception of a brief period in the I8go's.There were no major duty reductions before I914. During the 192o's,tariff levels increased further.Western European states protected their agrarian sectors against imports from the Danube region,Australia,Canada,and the United States,where the war had stimulated increased output.Great Britain adopted some colonial pref- erences in I919,imposed a small number of tariffs in I92I,and ex- tended some wartime duties.The successor states of the Austro-Hun- garian Empire imposed duties to achieve some national self-sufficiency. The British dominions and Latin America protected industries nur- tured by wartime demands.In the United States the Fordney- Charles P.Kindleberger,"The Rise of Free Trade in Western Europe 1820-1875," The Journal of Economic History,xxxv (March 1975),20-55;Sidney Pollard,European Economic Integration 1815-1970 (London:Thames and Hudson 1974),117;J.B. Condliffe,The Commerce of Nations (New York:Norton 1950),212-23,229-30. 10 Charles P.Kindleberger,"Group Behavior and International Trade,"Journal of Political Economy,Vol.59 (February 1951),33;Condliffe (fn.9),498;Pollard (fn. 9),I2I;and Peter A.Gourevitch,"International Trade,Domestic Coalitions,and Liberty:Comparative Responses to the Great Depression of 1873-1896,"paper delivered to the International Studies Association Convention,Washington,1973.STATE POWER AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE 325 with reductions of duties and other barriers to trade. In 1846 the abolition of the Corn Laws ended agricultural protectionism. France reduced duties on some intermediate goods in the 183o's, and on coal, iron, and steel in 1852. The Zollverein established fairly low tariffs in 1834. Belgium, Portugal, Spain, Piedmont, Norway, Switzerland, and Sweden lowered imposts in the 1850's. The golden age of free trade began in 1860, when Britain and France signed the Cobden￾Chevalier Treaty, which virtually eliminated trade barriers. This was followed by a series of bilateral trade agreements between virtually all European states. It is important to note, however, that the United States took little part in the general movement toward lower trade barriers." The movement toward greater liberality was reversed in the late 1870's. Austria-Hungary increased duties in 1876 and 1878, and Italy also in 1878; but the main breach came in Germany in 1879. France increased tariffs modestly in 1881, sharply in 1892, and raised them still further in 1910. Other countries followed a similar pattern. Only Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland continued to follow free-trade policies through the 1880's. Although Britain did not herself impose duties, she began establishing a system of prefer￾ential markets in her overseas Empire in 1898." The United States was basically protectionist throughout the nineteenth century. The high tariffs imposed during the Civil War continued with the exception of a brief period in the 1890's. There were no major duty reductions before 1914. During the 1920's, tariff levels increased further. Western European states protected their agrarian sectors against imports from the Danube region, Australia, Canada, and the United States, where the war had stimulated increased output. Great Britain adopted some colonial pref￾erences in 1919, imposed a small number of tariffs in 1921, and ex￾tended some wartime duties. The successor states of the Austro-Hun￾garian Empire imposed duties to achieve some national self-sufficiency. The British dominions and Latin America protected industries nur￾tured by wartime demands. In the United States the Fordney￾Charles P. Kindleberger, "The Rise of Free Trade in Western Europe 1820-1875," The Iournal of Economic History, xxxv (March 1975), 20-55; Sidney Pollard, European Economic Integration 18rfi-1970 (London: Thames and Hudson 1974)~ "7; J. R. Condliffe, The Commerce of Nations (New York: Norton 1950), 212-23, 229-30. 10 Charles P. Kindleberger, "Group Behavior and International Trade," Journal oj Political Economy, Vol. 59 (February rggr), 33; Condliffe (fn. g), 498; Pollard (fn. 9), 121; and Peter A. Gourevitch, "International Trade, Domestic Coalitions, and Liberty: Comparative Responses to the Great Depression of 1873-1896," paper delivered to the International Studies Association Convention, Washington, 1973