ated ideal conditions for the rapid imported canned tunafish when abun- health status. Indeed, as tribal peoples proliferation of snails carrying schistose- dant high-quality fish is available in their have shifted to a diet based on imported miasis(a liver fluke disease), and major own rivers. Another example of this sit- manufactured or processed foods, there epidemics suddenly occurred in areas uation occurs in tribes where mothers has been a dramatic rise in malnutrition, where this disease had never before been prefer to feed their infants expensive nu- a massive increase in dental problems, a problem. DDT spraying programs have tritionally inadequate canned milk from and a variety of other nutritional-related been temporarily successful in control- unsanitary, but high status, baby bottles. disorders. Nutritional physiology is so ling malaria, but there is often a rebound The high status of these items is often complex that even well-meaning dietary effect that increases the problem when promoted by clever trade ers and clev rer changes have had tragic consequences. spraying is discontinued, and the malar- advertising campaigns. In many areas of Southeast Asia, govern- ial mosquitoes are continually evolving Aside from these apparently volun- ment-sponsored protein supplementation resistant strains tary changes, it appears that more often programs supplying milk to protein-defi Urbanization is one of the prime mea etary changes are forced upon unwill- cient populations caused unexpected sures of development, but it is a mixed ing tribal peoples by circumstances be- health problems and increased mortality blessing for most former tribal peoples. yond their control. In some areas, new Officials failed to anticipate that in cul- rban health standards are abysmally food crops have been introduced by gov- tures where adults do not normally drink poor and generally worse than in rural ar- ernment decree, or as a consequence of milk, the enzymes needed to digest it are eas for the detribalized individuals who forced relocation or other policies de- no longer produced and milk intolerance have crowded into the towns and cities signed to end hunting, pastoralism, or results( Davis bolin, 1972). In brazil, throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin shifting cultivation. Food habits have a similar milk distribution program America seeking wage employment out also been modified by massive disruption caused an epidemic of permanent blind- of new economic necessity. Infectious of the natural environment by outsid- ness by aggravating a preexisting vita- diseases related to crowding and poor ers--as when sheepherders transformed min A deficiency(Bunce, 1972) sanitation are rampant in urban centers, the Australian Aborigines' foraging ter while greatly increased stress and poor ritory or when European invaders de- Teeth and Progress nutrition aggravate a variety of other troyed the bison herds that were the health problems. Malnutrition and other primary element in the Plains Indians There is ne g new In diet-related conditions are, in fact, one of subsistence patterns. Perhaps the most vation that savages, or peoples liv- the characteristic hazards of progress frequent cause of diet change occurs ing under primitive conditions, faced by tribal peoples and are discussed when formerly self-sufficient peoples have, in general, excellent teeth. in the following sections find that wage labor, cash cropping, and Nor is it news that most civilized other economic development activities populations possess wretched The Hazards of Dietary Change at feed tribal resources into the worle teeth which begin to decay almost market economy must inevitably divert fore they have er The traditional diets of tribal peoples are time and energy away from the produc pletely, and that dental caries is dmirably adapted to their nutritional tion of subsistence foods. Many develop- likely to be accompanied by peri needs and available food resources. Even ing peoples suddenly discover that, like odontal disease with further though these diets may seem bizarre, ab- it or not, they are unable to secure tradi reaching complications urd, and unpalatable to outsiders, they tional foods and must spend their newly Hooton. 1945: xvill are unlikely to be improved by drastic acquired cash on costly, and often nutri- modifications. Given the delicate bal- tionally inferior, manufactured foods Anthropologists have long recognized ances and complexities involved in any Overall, the available data seem to in- that undisturbed tribal peoples are often subsistence system, change always in- dicate that the dietary changes that are in excellent physical condition. And it volves risks, but for tribal people the linked to involvement in the world-mar- has often been noted specifically that effects of dietary change have been cata- ket economy have tended to lower rather dental caries and the other dental abnor strophic than raise the nutritional levels of the af- malities that plague industrialized societ- Under normal conditions, food habits fected tribal peoples. Specifically, the vi- ies are absent or rare among tribal are remarkably resistant to change, and tamin, mineral, and protein components peoples who have retained their tradi- indeed people are unlikely to abandon of their diets are often drastically re- tional diets. The fact that tribal food hab- their traditional diets voluntarily in favor duced and replaced by enormous in- its may contribute to the development of of dependence on difficult-to-obtain ex- creases in starch and carbohydrates, sound teeth, whereas modernized diets otic imports. In some cases it is true that often in the form of white flour and re- may do just the opposite, was illustrated imported foods may be identified with fined sugar. as long ago as 1894 in an article in the powerful outsiders and are therefore Any deterioration in the quality of a Jounal of the Royal Anthropological In sought as symbols of greater prestige. given populations diet is almost certain stitute that described the results of a This may lead to such absurdities as Am- to be reflected in an increase in defi- comparison between the teeth of ten azonian Indians choosing to consume ciency diseases and a general decline in Sioux Indians were examined when they 3ANNUAL EDITIONS 3 ated ideal conditions for the rapid proliferation of snails carrying schistoso￾miasis (a liver fluke disease), and major epidemics suddenly occurred in areas where this disease had never before been a problem. DDT spraying programs have been temporarily successful in control￾ling malaria, but there is often a rebound effect that increases the problem when spraying is discontinued, and the malar￾ial mosquitoes are continually evolving resistant strains. Urbanization is one of the prime mea￾sures of development, but it is a mixed blessing for most former tribal peoples. Urban health standards are abysmally poor and generally worse than in rural ar￾eas for the detribalized individuals who have crowded into the towns and cities throughout Africa, Asia, and Latin America seeking wage employment out of new economic necessity. Infectious diseases related to crowding and poor sanitation are rampant in urban centers, while greatly increased stress and poor nutrition aggravate a variety of other health problems. Malnutrition and other diet-related conditions are, in fact, one of the characteristic hazards of progress faced by tribal peoples and are discussed in the following sections. The Hazards of Dietary Change The traditional diets of tribal peoples are admirably adapted to their nutritional needs and available food resources. Even though these diets may seem bizarre, ab￾surd, and unpalatable to outsiders, they are unlikely to be improved by drastic modifications. Given the delicate bal￾ances and complexities involved in any subsistence system, change always in￾volves risks, but for tribal people the effects of dietary change have been cata￾strophic. Under normal conditions, food habits are remarkably resistant to change, and indeed people are unlikely to abandon their traditional diets voluntarily in favor of dependence on difficult-to-obtain ex￾otic imports. In some cases it is true that imported foods may be identified with powerful outsiders and are therefore sought as symbols of greater prestige. This may lead to such absurdities as Am￾azonian Indians choosing to consume imported canned tunafish when abun￾dant high-quality fish is available in their own rivers. Another example of this sit￾uation occurs in tribes where mothers prefer to feed their infants expensive nu￾tritionally inadequate canned milk from unsanitary, but high status, baby bottles. The high status of these items is often promoted by clever traders and clever advertising campaigns. Aside from these apparently volun￾tary changes, it appears that more often dietary changes are forced upon unwill￾ing tribal peoples by circumstances be￾yond their control. In some areas, new food crops have been introduced by gov￾ernment decree, or as a consequence of forced relocation or other policies de￾signed to end hunting, pastoralism, or shifting cultivation. Food habits have also been modified by massive disruption of the natural environment by outsid￾ers—as when sheepherders transformed the Australian Aborigines’ foraging ter￾ritory or when European invaders de￾stroyed the bison herds that were the primary element in the Plains Indians’ subsistence patterns. Perhaps the most frequent cause of diet change occurs when formerly self-sufficient peoples find that wage labor, cash cropping, and other economic development activities that feed tribal resources into the world￾market economy must inevitably divert time and energy away from the produc￾tion of subsistence foods. Many develop￾ing peoples suddenly discover that, like it or not, they are unable to secure tradi￾tional foods and must spend their newly acquired cash on costly, and often nutri￾tionally inferior, manufactured foods. Overall, the available data seem to in￾dicate that the dietary changes that are linked to involvement in the world-mar￾ket economy have tended to lower rather than raise the nutritional levels of the af￾fected tribal peoples. Specifically, the vi￾tamin, mineral, and protein components of their diets are often drastically re￾duced and replaced by enormous in￾creases in starch and carbohydrates, often in the form of white flour and re￾fined sugar. Any deterioration in the quality of a given population’s diet is almost certain to be reflected in an increase in defi￾ciency diseases and a general decline in health status. Indeed, as tribal peoples have shifted to a diet based on imported manufactured or processed foods, there has been a dramatic rise in malnutrition, a massive increase in dental problems, and a variety of other nutritional-related disorders. Nutritional physiology is so complex that even well-meaning dietary changes have had tragic consequences. In many areas of Southeast Asia, govern￾ment-sponsored protein supplementation programs supplying milk to protein-defi￾cient populations caused unexpected health problems and increased mortality. Officials failed to anticipate that in cul￾tures where adults do not normally drink milk, the enzymes needed to digest it are no longer produced and milk intolerance results (Davis & Bolin, 1972). In Brazil, a similar milk distribution program caused an epidemic of permanent blind￾ness by aggravating a preexisting vita￾min A deficiency (Bunce, 1972). Teeth and Progress There is nothing new in the obser￾vation that savages, or peoples liv￾ing under primitive conditions, have, in general, excellent teeth.… Nor is it news that most civilized populations possess wretched teeth which begin to decay almost before they have erupted com￾pletely, and that dental caries is likely to be accompanied by peri￾odontal disease with further reaching complications. Hooton, 1945: xviii Anthropologists have long recognized that undisturbed tribal peoples are often in excellent physical condition. And it has often been noted specifically that dental caries and the other dental abnor￾malities that plague industrialized societ￾ies are absent or rare among tribal peoples who have retained their tradi￾tional diets. The fact that tribal food hab￾its may contribute to the development of sound teeth, whereas modernized diets may do just the opposite, was illustrated as long ago as 1894 in an article in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological In￾stitute that described the results of a comparison between the teeth of ten Sioux Indians were examined when they