The knowledge base for product development 151 Table 4.1 Concepts of technology Disembodied Disembodied technology: stock of technological knowledge both embodied in people and Disembodied innovative activities: activities carried out at the firm level to generate or Disembodied technological indicators: R&D expenditures and personnel, design and engineering activities, patent and licence counts, technology flows measured by the technological balance of payments and bibliometric data technological mbodied technological change: accumulation of new technical assets(machinery, quipment, plant and operating systems) ies consisting of the new productive assets with enhanced technical and technological performances compared mbodied technological and innovative indicators: investment in new mach measuring the adoption and diffusion of embodied technologies Source: From Evangelista, 1999, by permission of Rinaldo Evangelista and Edward Elgar Publishing textbooks and journals, called either explicit(as used in this book) or codified knowledge 4.1.1 Knowledge in the food system In a study of the Italian industry, Evangelista(1999)placed the food and drink industries in the investment intensive sector. The other sectors were R&D/investment intensive R&d(research and development) and d&e (design and engineering) technology users In his investment intensive sector, investment activities play an important role, while research, development, design and engineering play marginal roles Process innovations are very common and innovation performance is linked to investment in technologically new machinery and equipment. Other processing ndustries. chemicals and sugar in the investment intensive sector and pharmaceuticals in the r&D/investment intensive sector had higher research, development, design and engineering activities. Pharmaceuticals had high r&D and d&e expenditures accompanied by medium or high levels of investment in machinery, innovation being clearly oriented towards the introduction of product innovations. Comparing companies in Europe in Table 4.2, this greater emphasistextbooks and journals, called either explicit (as used in this book) or codified knowledge. 4.1.1 Knowledge in the food system In a study of the Italian industry, Evangelista (1999) placed the food and drink industries in the investment intensive sector. The other sectors were: • R&D/investment intensive; • R&D (research and development) and D&E (design and engineering) innovators; • technology users. In his investment intensive sector, investment activities play an important role, while research, development, design and engineering play marginal roles. Process innovations are very common and innovation performance is linked to investment in technologically new machinery and equipment. Other processing industries, chemicals and sugar in the investment intensive sector and pharmaceuticals in the R&D/investment intensive sector had higher research, development, design and engineering activities. Pharmaceuticals had high R&D and D&E expenditures accompanied by medium or high levels of investment in machinery, innovation being clearly oriented towards the introduction of product innovations. Comparing companies in Europe in Table 4.2, this greater emphasis Table 4.1 Concepts of technology Disembodied Disembodied technology: stock of technological knowledge both embodied in people and expressed in a codified form. Disembodied technological change: process of advancing technological knowledge. Disembodied innovative activities: activities carried out at the firm level to generate or develop new technological knowledge. Disembodied technological indicators: R&D expenditures and personnel, design and engineering activities, patent and licence counts, technology flows measured by the technological balance of payments and bibliometric data. Embodied Embodied technology: stock of technological productive assets consisting of machinery, equipment, plant and operating systems (both tangible and intangible). Embodied technological change: accumulation of new technical assets (machinery, equipment, plant and operating systems). Embodied innovative activities: innovative activities consisting of the use or adoption of new productive assets with enhanced technical and technological performances compared with those used before. Embodied technological and innovative indicators: investment in new machinery, equipment and plant incorporating new (or not yet used) technologies; indicators measuring the adoption and diffusion of embodied technologies. Source: From Evangelista, 1999, by permission of Rinaldo Evangelista and Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. The knowledge base for product development 151