J. Wadsworth, D.R. Lesuer /Materials Characterization 45(2000) 289-313 2.8 Thailand axes and tools prepared by the smith Although less extensively developed than the by cementation, ie burying a thin strip of Indonesian metal kisses (next section). there are low-carbon iron about 1 mm thick in a charcoal fire interesting artifacts originating in Thailand. In a study with limited air access to give a reducing atmo- of such objects [25], four iron artifacts were exca sphere, rich in carbon monoxide. vated in Northeast Thailand and three were dated to 2.9 Indonesian kris the Late Iron Age(e.g, 300-400 AD). The fourth artifact, dated by association with the other three, involved welding an ultrahigh carbon content steel The Indonesians of Java and other Malayan onto a wrought iron core to form a high quality axe Islands made a number of knives known as kisses blade. In concluding that the artifacts date to the late Indonesian kisses usually are forged to have re. Iron Age, the authors note that iron was produced in petitive curves along their length. There are in fact Thailand from 500 BC or earlier [26] two classes. One is that containing long blades that were used as sabers, with a slashing motion. The The crescent-bladed axe was found a short dis- other class is that of short stabbing blades. All are tance from the Late Iron Age mound site of No double edged. It is believed that the undulating Phrik which is located near Ban Hua Na village, Phu curves might make for more efficient thrusts and Luong sub-district, Loei Province. Although the carbon content was estimated as 1. 8% and the steel recoveries of the weapon. Other theories are based as concluded to be hypereutectoid, this finding was on religion. For example, under the Hindu influ- based on the assumption that the grain boundary ence, the oriental snake gad, Naga, may be repre- material was all massive carbide. It is not clear to sented in the serpentine curves. Unlike Japanese the present authors that this is the case at all, and the swords, the kisses bear no names, dates, or places steel may in fact be hypoeutectoid. Nonetheless, the of manufacture. although there are over 30 different artifact is an example of an axe that has a relatively types that can be associated with different regions massive cutting head formed by welding a layer The blades are usually laminated; in fact, the name carbon steel onto a wrought iron core for the most popular ones is pamur, a Malay word In the microstructure of a second artifact, an iron for combination or mixture. Smith [16 included socketted chisel, a"laminated semi-circular pattem is excellent examples of surface patterns in his book readily visible. "Hogan and Rutnin[25] proposed that on historical metallurgy; and the detailed manufac the manufacturing process was"a simple procedure." ture of a relatively modern kris also has been described by the famous metallurgist Walter Rosen- The starting material was piled wrought iron, made hain [27] by hammering sponge from the smelting furnace A typical Indonesian kris is shown in Fig. 7(a), to thin sheets, then folding and re-folding while and an interesting example of a specialized execu- ot and hammering them together to form a sha tioners kris, with a straight blade is shown in Fig uired for sale to blacksmiths. When re-heated 7(b). In this case, as with others, one of the layers is he forge the surface of each sheet may be either meteoric iron containing Ni. According to Smith xidised or reduced. so that the carbon content kisses were made from about 1379 AD onward different in surface and centre of the sheets. when these sheets are welded together the laminated in Indonesia under Hindu influences. From the description by Rosenhain, the modern kris was made by solid-state ng of a tool steel Laminations were also evident in an iron sock- high-carbon steel' such as is commonly used for etted spearhead which tools and cutlery, "to quote Rosenhain) to welded yers of wrought iron. In addition, according to appears to have been made in a sandwich construction Rosenhain [27] carbon strip of the iron, lying parallel to the top The imperfection of the [solid-state) welds between surface.. This was sandwiched between strips of the wrought iron [layers]also play an important part soft, low-carbon iron and the sandwich forge welded in the formation of the damask pattem. Thu 2.10. Halberds of the spear can always be resharpened to give A halberd is a weapon that is both a spear and a elatively hard, sharp point, while the soft outer battle ax that was used in warfare in the 15th to 16th yers are more easily ground to remove the bulk of century. According to Meier [28], statements regard2.8. Thailand axes and tools Although less extensively developed than the Indonesian metal krisses (next section), there are interesting artifacts originating in Thailand. In a study of such objects [25], four iron artifacts were exca￾vated in Northeast Thailand and three were dated to the Late Iron Age (e.g., 300 ± 400 AD). The fourth artifact, dated by association with the other three, involved welding an ultrahigh carbon content steel onto a wrought iron core to form a high quality axe blade. In concluding that the artifacts date to the Late Iron Age, the authors note that iron was produced in Thailand from 500 BC or earlier [26]. The crescent-bladed axe was found a short dis￾tance from the Late Iron Age mound site of Non Phrik which is located near Ban Hua Na village, Phu Luong sub-district, Loei Province. Although the carbon content was estimated as 1.8% and the steel was concluded to be hypereutectoid, this finding was based on the assumption that the grain boundary material was all massive carbide. It is not clear to the present authors that this is the case at all, and the steel may in fact be hypoeutectoid. Nonetheless, the artifact is an example of an axe that has a relatively massive cutting head formed by welding a layer of carbon steel onto a wrought iron core. In the microstructure of a second artifact, an iron socketted chisel, a ``laminated semi-circular pattern is readily visible.'' Hogan and Rutnin [25] proposed that the manufacturing process was ``a simple procedure.'' The starting material was piled wrought iron, made by hammering sponge from the smelting furnace into thin sheets, then folding and re-folding while hot and hammering them together to form a shape required for sale to blacksmiths. When re-heated in the forge the surface of each sheet may be either oxidised or reduced, so that the carbon content is different in surface and centre of the sheets. When these sheets are welded together the laminated appearance results. Laminations were also evident in an iron sock￾etted spearhead which: ...appears to have been made in a sandwich construction, commencing with a relatively high￾carbon strip of the iron, lying parallel to the top surface.... This was sandwiched between strips of soft, low-carbon iron and the sandwich forge welded and shaped... Thus, the: ...use of a higher carbon core ensures that the point of the spear can always be resharpened to give a relatively hard, sharp point, while the soft outer layers are more easily ground to remove the bulk of the metal required for sharpening. The higher carbon central strip would have been prepared by the smith by cementation, ie [sic] by burying a thin strip of low-carbon iron about 1 mm thick in a charcoal fire with limited air access to give a reducing atmo￾sphere, rich in carbon monoxide. 2.9. Indonesian kris The Indonesians of Java and other Malayan Islands made a number of knives known as krisses. Indonesian krisses usually are forged to have re￾petitive curves along their length. There are in fact two classes. One is that containing long blades that were used as sabers, with a slashing motion. The other class is that of short stabbing blades. All are double edged. It is believed that the undulating curves might make for more efficient thrusts and recoveries of the weapon. Other theories are based on religion. For example, under the Hindu influ￾ence, the oriental snake gad, Naga, may be repre￾sented in the serpentine curves. Unlike Japanese swords, the krisses bear no names, dates, or places of manufacture, although there are over 30 different types that can be associated with different regions. The blades are usually laminated; in fact, the name for the most popular ones is pamur, a Malay word for combination or mixture. Smith [16] included excellent examples of surface patterns in his book on historical metallurgy; and the detailed manufac￾ture of a relatively modern kris also has been described by the famous metallurgist Walter Rosen￾hain [27]. A typical Indonesian kris is shown in Fig. 7(a), and an interesting example of a specialized execu￾tioner's kris, with a straight blade, is shown in Fig. 7(b). In this case, as with others, one of the layers is meteoric iron containing Ni. According to Smith, krisses were made from about 1379 AD onward in Indonesia under Hindu influences. From the description by Rosenhain, the modern kris was made by solid-state welding of a tool steel (``a `high-carbon steel' such as is commonly used for tools and cutlery,'' to quote Rosenhain) to welded layers of wrought iron. In addition, according to Rosenhain [27]: The imperfection of the [solid-state] welds between the wrought iron [layers] also play an important part in the formation of the damask pattern. 2.10. Halberds A halberd is a weapon that is both a spear and a battle ax that was used in warfare in the 15th to 16th century. According to Meier [28], statements regard￾J. Wadsworth, D.R. Lesuer / Materials Characterization 45 (2000) 289±313 297