Contents List of tables....... iⅳ List of abbreviations........... vi Acknowledgements...... vii Executive summary...… vili Introduction. 1.The evidence from epidemiology........... 1.1 GBD owing to air pollution....... 1.2 The evolving evidence... 1.3 The improved practice................. 6 1.4 APMP and HAP in the WHO European Region.... 7 2.The evidence from economics.................. 14 2.1 The valuation of life and health........ 14 2.2 The standard method for calculating the cost of mortalities:value of a statistical life (VSL… 16 2.3 Country-specific VSLs and intra-and international equity.......................... 17 2.4 Estimating the cost of morbidity. 21 2.5 An indicative estimate for the additional cost of morbidity...................... 22 2.6 The economic cost of health impacts of air pollution in the WHO European Region 24 2.7 Economic cost calculation in relation to GDP.............. 27 2.8 Economic cost calculation with a common VSL for EU countries............... 29 2.9 Economic cost calculation using values of life-years(VOLYs)lost in lieu of VSLS. 31 2.10 A comparison of economic (welfare)and GDP impact assessments........... 34 3.Policy implications:towards an evidence-based approach........................... 37 3.1 The need for action and the need for reflection...................... 37 3.2 Sector-specific technical evidence and its limits........................ 39 3.3 Estimating the main sectoral sources of air pollution impacts and costs.... 39 3.4 The logical framework for correction:"pricing investment regulation"... 42 3.5 The evidence on the efficacy of pricing,investment and regulation............ 43 3.6 The chronological framework for correction:"regulation investment pricing”.... 45 References.. 48 i折iii Contents List of tables.............................................................................................................. List of abbreviations.................................................................................................. Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. Executive summary................................................................................................... Introduction............................................................................................................... 1. The evidence from epidemiology.......................................................................... 1.1 GBD owing to air pollution............................................................................ 1.2 The evolving evidence................................................................................... 1.3 The improved practice.................................................................................. 1.4 APMP and HAP in the WHO European Region............................................. 2. The evidence from economics.............................................................................. 2.1 The valuation of life and health..................................................................... 2.2 The standard method for calculating the cost of mortalities: value of a statistical life (VSL)........................................................................................ 2.3 Country-specific VSLs and intra- and international equity........................... 2.4 Estimating the cost of morbidity................................................................... 2.5 An indicative estimate for the additional cost of morbidity........................... 2.6 The economic cost of health impacts of air pollution in the WHO European Region.......................................................................................... 2.7 Economic cost calculation in relation to GDP............................................... 2.8 Economic cost calculation with a common VSL for EU countries............... 2.9 Economic cost calculation using values of life-years (VOLYs) lost in lieu of VSLs............................................................................................... 2.10 A comparison of economic (welfare) and GDP impact assessments........... 3. Policy implications: towards an evidence-based approach.............................. 3.1 The need for action and the need for reflection........................................... 3.2 Sector-specific technical evidence and its limits......................................... 3.3 Estimating the main sectoral sources of air pollution impacts and costs.... 3.4 The logical framework for correction: “pricing + investment + regulation”... 3.5 The evidence on the efficacy of pricing, investment and regulation............ 3.6 The chronological framework for correction: “regulation + investment + pricing”......................................................................................................... References................................................................................................................ iv vi vii viii 1 3 3 4 6 7 14 14 16 17 21 22 24 27 29 31 34 37 37 39 39 42 43 45 48