x Contents Part 3 Process control 13 Thermophysical properties of meat 13.1 Chilling 27 13. 1.1 Thermal conductivity 13.1.2 Specific heat 274 13. 1.3 Enthalpies 276 13. 2 Freezing, thawing and tempering 13.2.1 Ice content 27 13.2.2 Heat extraction 13. 2.3 Thermal conductivity 3.2.4 Density 13.3 Mathematical models 13.4 Conclusions 13.5 References 14 Temperature measurement 283 14.1 Instrumentation 284 14.1.1 Hand-held digital thermometers 284 14.1.2 Temperature recorders 14.1.3 Time-temperature indicators 288 14.2 Calibration 14.3 Measuring temperature data 14.3.1 Contact non-destructive methods 290 143.2 Non-contact non-destructive methods 14.3.3 Contact destructive methods 14.3.4 Storage 14.3.5 Distribution 295 14.3.6 Retail 14.4 Interpreting temperature data 14.4.1 Example 1 14.4.2 Example 2 14.5 Conclusion 14.6 5 Specifying, designing and optimising refrigeration systems 303 15.1 Process specification 15.1.1 Throughput 304 15.1.2 Temperature requirements 15.1.3 Weight loss 15.14 Future use 305 15.1.5 Plant layout 305 15.2 Engineering specification 306 15.2.1 Environmental conditions 15.2.2 Room sizePart 3 Process control 13 Thermophysical properties of meat 273 13.1 Chilling 274 13.1.1 Thermal conductivity 274 13.1.2 Specific heat 274 13.1.3 Enthalpies 276 13.2 Freezing, thawing and tempering 277 13.2.1 Ice content 277 13.2.2 Heat extraction 277 13.2.3 Thermal conductivity 278 13.2.4 Density 280 13.3 Mathematical models 280 13.4 Conclusions 280 13.5 References 281 14 Temperature measurement 283 14.1 Instrumentation 284 14.1.1 Hand-held digital thermometers 284 14.1.2 Temperature recorders 285 14.1.3 Time–temperature indicators 288 14.2 Calibration 289 14.3 Measuring temperature data 289 14.3.1 Contact non-destructive methods 290 14.3.2 Non-contact non-destructive methods 290 14.3.3 Contact destructive methods 292 14.3.4 Storage 294 14.3.5 Distribution 295 14.3.6 Retail 296 14.4 Interpreting temperature data 298 14.4.1 Example 1 298 14.4.2 Example 2 299 14.5 Conclusions 301 14.6 References 302 15 Specifying, designing and optimising refrigeration systems 303 15.1 Process specification 303 15.1.1 Throughput 304 15.1.2 Temperature requirements 304 15.1.3 Weight loss 304 15.1.4 Future use 305 15.1.5 Plant layout 305 15.2 Engineering specification 306 15.2.1 Environmental conditions 307 15.2.2 Room size 308 x Contents