Contents Preface vii List of Figures xiii List of Tables 1 An Introduction to Probability and Statistics 1 1.1 1 l.2 Statistics...·········· 1 Chapter Exercises.········· 3 2 An Introduction to R 5 2.1 Downloading and Installing R 5 2.2 Communicating with R........ 6 2.3 Basic R Operations and Concepts..·..· 8 2.4 Getting Help.············ 14 2.5 External Resources........ 15 2.6 Other Tips............ 16 Chapter Exercises......... 17 3 Data Description 19 3.1 Types of Data........ 19 3.2 Features of Data Distributions 33 3.3 Descriptive Statistics......... 35 3.4 Exploratory Data Analysis 40 3.5 Multivariate Data and Data Frames 45 3.6 Comparing Populations 47 Chapter Exercises 53 4 Probability 65 4.1 Sample Spaces.... 65 4.2 Events 70 4.3 Model Assignment 。 75 4.4 Properties of Probability 80 4.5 Counting Methods... 84 4.6 Conditional Probability 89 4.7 Independent Events..············ 95 4.8 Bayes'Rule..··.··············· 98 4.9 Random Variables.....,..:。·.·············· 102 Chapter Exercises......... 105 iiiContents Preface vii List of Figures xiii List of Tables xv 1 An Introduction to Probability and Statistics 1 1.1 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 An Introduction to R 5 2.1 Downloading and Installing R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.2 Communicating with R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.3 Basic R Operations and Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.4 Getting Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.5 External Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.6 Other Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3 Data Description 19 3.1 Types of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3.2 Features of Data Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.3 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.4 Exploratory Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.5 Multivariate Data and Data Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.6 Comparing Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4 Probability 65 4.1 Sample Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.2 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 4.3 Model Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.4 Properties of Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 4.5 Counting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.6 Conditional Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.7 Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.8 Bayes’ Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.9 Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Chapter Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 iii