called the rake. It may be defined either by the angle to the vertical or the distance between the intersection of the stem produced with the base line and the forward perpendicular. When ships have curved stems in profile, especially where they also have bulbous bows, stem rake cannot be simply defined and it would be necessary define the stem profile by a number of ordinates at different waterlines In the case of a simple straight stem the stem line is usually joined up with the base line by a circular are, but sometimes a curve of some other form is used, in which case several ordinates are required to define its shape Draught and The draught at which a ship floats is simply the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline. If the waterline is parallel to the keel the ship is said to be floating on an even keel, but if the waterline is not parallel then the ship is said to be trimmed If the draught at the after end is greater than that at the fore end the ship is trimmed by the stern and if the converse is the case it is trimmed by the bow or by the head. The draught can be measured in two ways, either as a moulded draught which is the distance from the base line to the waterline, or as an extreme draught which is the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline. In the modern welded merchant ship to the waterline. In the modern welded merchant ship these two draughts differ only by one thickness of plating but in certain types of ships where, say, a bar keel is fitted the extreme draught would be measured to the underside of the keel and may exceed the moulded draught of by 15-23cm(6-9in). It is important to know the draught of a ship, or how much water the ship is'drawing, and so that the draught may be readily obtained draught marks are cut in the stem and the stern. These are 6 in high with a space of 6in between the top of one figure and the bottom of the next one. When the water level is up to the bottom of a particular figure the draught in feet has the value of that figure. If metric units are used then the figures would probably be 10 cm high with a 10 cm spacing In many large vessels the structure bends in the longitudinal vertical plane even in still water, with the result that the base line or the keel does not remain a straight line. The mean draught at which the vessel is floating is not then simply obtained by taking half the sum of the forward and after draughts. To ascertain how much the vessel is hogging or sagging a set of draught marks is placed amidships so that if da, de and df are the draughts at the after end amidships and the forward end respectively then da +do Hog or sag= 2 When use is made of amidship draughts it is necessary to measure the draught on both sides of the ship and take the mean of the two readings in case the ship should be heeled one side or the other The difference between the forward and after draughts of s ship is called the trim, so that trim T=da- df, and as previously stated the ship will the said to be trimming by the stern or the bow according as the draught aft or the draught forward is in excess. For a given total load on the ship the draught will have its least value when the ship is on an even keel. This is an important point when a ship is navigating in restricted depth of water or when entering a dry dock. Usually a ship should be designed to float on an even keel in the fully loaded condition, and if this is not attainable a small trim by the stern is aimed at. Trim by the bow is not considered desirable and should be avoided as it reduces the height of platform forward and increases the liability to take water on board in rou Freeboard may be defined as the distance which the ship projects above the surface of the water or the distane measured downwards from the deck to the waterline. The freeboard to the weather deck, for example, will vary along the length of the ship because of the sheer of the deck and will also be affected by the trim, if any. Usually the freeboard will be a minimum at amidships and will increase towards the ends Freeboard has an important influence on the seaworthiness of a ship. The greater the freeboard the greater is the above water volume, and this volume provides reserve buoyancy, assisting the ship to rise when it goes through waves. The above water volume can also help the ship to remain afloat in the event of damage. It will be seen later that freeboard has an important influence on the range of stability. Minimum freeboards are laid downcalled the ‘rake’. It may be defined either by the angle to the vertical or the distance between the intersection of the stem produced with the base line and the forward perpendicular. When ships have curved stems in profile, and especially where they also have bulbous bows, stem rake cannot be simply defined and it would be necessary to define the stem profile by a number of ordinates at different waterlines. In the case of a simple straight stem the stem line is usually joined up with the base line by a circular are, but sometimes a curve of some other form is used, in which case several ordinates are required to define its shape. Draught and trim The draught at which a ship floats is simply the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline. If the waterline is parallel to the keel the ship is said to be floating on an even keel, but if the waterline is not parallel then the ship is said to be trimmed. If the draught at the after end is greater than that at the fore end the ship is trimmed by the stern and if the converse is the case it is trimmed by the bow or by the head. The draught can be measured in two ways, either as a moulded draught which is the distance from the base line to the waterline, or as an extreme draught which is the distance from the bottom of the ship to the waterline. In the modern welded merchant ship to the waterline. In the modern welded merchant ship these two draughts differ only by one thickness of plating, but in certain types of ships where, say, a bar keel is fitted the extreme draught would be measured to the underside of the keel and may exceed the moulded draught of by 15-23cm (6-9in). It is important to know the draught of a ship, or how much water the ship is ‘drawing’, and so that the draught may be readily obtained draught marks are cut in the stem and the stern. These are 6 in high with a space of 6in between the top of one figure and the bottom of the next one. When the water level is up to the bottom of a particular figure the draught in feet has the value of that figure. If metric units are used then the figures would probably be 10 cm high with a 10 cm spacing. In many large vessels the structure bends in the longitudinal vertical plane even in still water, with the result that the base line or the keel does not remain a straight line. The mean draught at which the vessel is floating is not then simply obtained by taking half the sum of the forward and after draughts. To ascertain how much the vessel is hogging or sagging a set of draught marks is placed amidships so that if da, d  and df are the draughts at the after end amidships and the forward end respectively then Hog or sag= 2 da + df - d  When use is made of amidship draughts it is necessary to measure the draught on both sides of the ship and take the mean of the two readings in case the ship should be heeled one side or the other. The difference between the forward and after draughts of s ship is called the ‘trim’, so that trim T=da- df, and as previously stated the ship will the said to be trimming by the stern or the bow according as the draught aft or the draught forward is in excess. For a given total load on the ship the draught will have its least value when the ship is on an even keel. This is an important point when a ship is navigating in restricted depth of water or when entering a dry dock. Usually a ship should be designed to float on an even keel in the fully loaded condition, and if this is not attainable a small trim by the stern is aimed at. Trim by the bow is not considered desirable and should be avoided as it reduces the ‘height of platform’forward and increases the liability to take water on board in rough seas. Freeboard Freeboard may be defined as the distance which the ship projects above the surface of the water or the distance measured downwards from the deck to the waterline. The freeboard to the weather deck, for example, will vary along the length of the ship because of the sheer of the deck and will also be affected by the trim, if any. Usually the freeboard will be a minimum at amidships and will increase towards the ends. Freeboard has an important influence on the seaworthiness of a ship. The greater the freeboard the greater is the above water volume, and this volume provides reserve buoyancy, assisting the ship to rise when it goes through waves. The above water volume can also help the ship to remain afloat in the event of damage. It will be seen later that freeboard has an important influence on the range of stability. Minimum freeboards are laid down