Acknowledgments My thanks go first of all to Professor Sir Alan Cottrell, metallurgist, my friend and mentor for more than half a century, who has given me sage advice almost since I emerged from swaddling clothes. He has also very kindly read this book in typescript d offered his comments, helpful as always Next, I want to acknowledge my deep debt to the late Professor Cyril Stanley Smith, metallurgist and historian, who taught me much of what I know about the proper approach to the history of a technological discipline and gave me copies of many of his incomparable books, which are repeatedly cited in mine Professor Sir Brian Pippard gave me the opportunity, in 1993, to prepare a book chapter on the history of the physics of materials for a book, Twentieth Century Physics, that he was editing and which appeared in 1995; this chapter was a us 'dry run for the present work. I have also found his own contributions to that book a valuable source a book published in 1992, Out of the Crystal Maze, edited by Lillian Hoddeson and others, was also a particularly valuable source of information about the physics of materials, shading into materials science Dr Frederick Seitz, doyen of solid-state physicists, has given me much helpful information, about the history of semiconductors in particular, and has provided an valuable exemplar(as has Sir Alan Cottrell) of what a scientist can achieve in Professor Colin Russell, historian of science and emeritus professor at the Open University, gave me helpful counsel on the history of chemistry and showed me how to take a philosophical attitude to the disagreements that beset the relation between practising scientists and historians of science. I am grateful to him The facilities of the Science Periodicals Library of Cambridge University, an unequalled source of information recent and ancient, and its helpful staff, together with those of the Whipple Library of the History and Philosophy of Science and the Library of the Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, have been an dispensable resource Professors Derek Hull, Colin Humphreys and Alan Windle of my Department in Cambridge have successively provided ideal facilities that have enabled me to devote myself to the preparation of this book. My thanks go to them Hundreds of friends and colleagues all over the world, far too many to nam ave sent me preprints and reprints, ofter en spontaneously. The following provided specific information, comments or illustrations, or given me intervAcknowledgments My thanks go first of all to Professor Sir Alan Cottrell, metallurgist, my friend and mentor for more than half a century, who has given me sage advice almost since I emerged from swaddling clothes. He has also very kindly read this book in typescript and offered his comments, helpful as always. Next, I want to acknowledge my deep debt to the late Professor Cyril Stanley Smith, metallurgist and historian, who taught me much of what I know about the proper approach to the history of a technological discipline and gave me copies of many of his incomparable books, which are repeatedly cited in mine. Professor Sir Brian Pippard gave me the opportunity, in 1993, to prepare a book chapter on the history of the physics of materials for a book, Twentieth Century Physics, that he was editing and which appeared in 1995; this chapter was a useful 'dry run' for the present work. I have also found his own contributions to that book a valuable source. A book published in 1992, Out of the Crystal Maze, edited by Lillian Hoddeson and others, was also a particularly valuable source of information about the physics of materials, shading into materials science. Dr. Frederick Seitz, doyen of solid-state physicists, has given me much helpful information, about the history of semiconductors in particular, and has provided an invaluable exemplar (as has Sir Alan Cottrell) of what a scientist can achieve in retirement. Professor Colin Russell, historian of science and emeritus professor at the Open University, gave me helpful counsel on the history of chemistry and showed me how to take a philosophical attitude to the disagreements that beset the relation between practising scientists and historians of science. I am grateful to him. The facilities of the Science Periodicals Library of Cambridge University, an unequalled source of information recent and ancient, and its helpful staff, together with those of the Whipple Library of the History and Philosophy of Science and the Library of the Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, have been an indispensable resource. Professors Derek Hull, Colin Humphreys and Alan Windle of my Department in Cambridge have successively provided ideal facilities that have enabled me to devote myself to the preparation of this book. My thanks go to them. Hundreds of friends and colleagues all over the world, far too many to name, have sent me preprints and reprints, often spontaneously. The following have provided specific information, comments or illustrations, or given me interviews: ix