ATTACHMENT ANXIETY AND PARTNER GUILT 23 ter threats to their relationship.Anxious individuals ve onsibility.attending to the self and or c ccuny.are n their pa guilt powerfully s to apc hurtful behavior, h .the and affective responses to threat have ssessed self- individuals high in anety.The immediateou pset and h of hurt and other us individua to th ent and in tum cl pro-relaonshp motv mip (Bau et a 2012 can improve th t perso and thus their hurt-based emoti onal re ions might to be the primary for anxiou the secun ner's rd.For these n guilt might ha curity and rel ility next their hurt to elici This Attachment Anxiety and the Long-Term Consequences of Guilt ekine in order to secure part ninimgth and h &Hi nt to 1973:M car 1991.reac (e.g.,Cov .Heleno, 03.S tegy th with individua 94 shaver Mikulince 22 displays The results across studies indicate that guilt is associated ignals to relationship partne ch has pro ive prob solving and making mends the se reasons,guil ce guilt and in turn,to obtain reas ance and and nhance relatior nins.However.no prior research has exam n important relati nship inte ed e of are commonly hips to Benefits and Costs of the Partner Feeling Guilty The relationship-enhancing processes deseribed abow son Sibley.2009 guilt-induction strategies involve con that the partner's guilt will have a variety of benefits for the hur expressions of hurt (e.gtears ndividual.As outlined ab er's b the situ is ha on the self( h it ister).This ignaling functio hurts me")and appealing to the partner's love.concem.and ding feelings of relationship These distinct motivations and consequences have implications for understanding the reactions of anxious individuals when they encounter threats to their relationship. Anxious individuals yearn for closeness and security, are overly dependent on their partner’s support and acceptance, are strongly committed to sustaining their relationships, but tend to perceive devaluation by their partners. This combination should render anxious people particularly prone to experiencing pronounced hurt feelings when facing partner rejection, criticism or conflict. Supporting this prediction, the studies reporting significant associations between attachment anx￾iety and affective responses to threat have assessed self-reported or observer ratings of stress, upset, and hurt (e.g., Campbell et al., 2005; Feeney, 2005; Simpson, Ickes, & Grich, 1999; Simpson et al., 1996) or feelings of rejection (Campbell et al., 2005; Overall & Sibley, 2009; Tran & Simpson, 2009). Perhaps more important is the interpersonal outcomes associ￾ated with hurt feelings. Hurt feelings signal dependence, vulnera￾bility, and commitment and in turn elicit pro-relationship motiva￾tions by the partner, evident by greater guilt and more positive and caring behavior (Lemay et al., 2012). This process is consistent with the relationship maintenance orientation of anxious individ￾uals, and thus their hurt-based emotional reactions might actually help to restore the connection they crave. Moreover, given that relationship threats and associated hurt feelings will intensify anxious individuals’ need to secure proximity and reassurance, and hurt feelings tend to produce exactly what anxious individuals desire (i.e., responsive repair efforts from their partners), anxious individuals may purposively and overtly express their hurt to elicit reassurance and repair efforts from the partner. This possibility is consistent with the hyperactivation strate￾gies that define attachment anxiety. Hyperactivation of the attachment system involves vigilant and compulsive proximity￾seeking in order to secure partner responsiveness. Relationship threatening contexts, therefore, should trigger forms of “pro￾test” by anxious individuals, including overt emotional displays and insistent attempts to regain (or even coerce) care and attention from the partner (Bowlby, 1969, 1973; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003; Simpson & Rholes, 2012). A central proximity￾maintaining strategy theorized to operate in infancy (Cassidy & Berlin, 1994), adolescence (Kobak, Cole, Ferenz-Gillies, Flem￾ing, & Gamble, 1993), and adulthood (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2007) involves exaggerated emotional displays that emphasize dependence and vulnerability—precisely the qualities that hurt signals to relationship partners (Lemay et al., 2012). However, no prior research has provided evidence that anxious individu￾als intentionally communicate or exaggerate their hurt feelings in order to induce guilt and, in turn, to obtain reassurance and reparative responses from their partner. Guilt-induction strategies, including exaggerated expressions of hurt, are commonly employed in close relationships to influence others (Baumeister, Stillwell, & Heatheron, 1994, 1995; Vange￾listi, Daly, & Rudnick, 1991). Sometimes referred to as manipu￾lation and supplication (e.g., Bui, Raven, & Schwarzwald, 1994; Howard, Blumstein, & Schwartz, 1986; Overall, Fletcher, Simp￾son, & Sibley, 2009), guilt-induction strategies involve conveying or amplifying emotional expressions of hurt (e.g., tears, sulking, making sad face, pouting); stressing the negative impact the part￾ner’s behavior or the situation is having on the self (“how much it hurts me”); and appealing to the partner’s love, concern, and relationship obligations. All of these tactics involve highlighting hurt, dependence, and vulnerability to guilt the partner into taking responsibility, attending to the self, and soothing hurt feelings. Moreover, because guilt powerfully motivates people to make amends, guilt-induction strategies tend to be successful in getting close others to apologize, cease hurtful behavior, and comply with goals and desires (Baumeister et al., 1994, 1995; Tangney, Wag￾ner, Fletcher, & Gramzow, 1992; Vangelisti et al., 1991). Not only do guilt-induction strategies lead to interpersonal benefits, such outcomes might be even more beneficial for individuals high in attachment anxiety. The immediate outcome of expressions of hurt and other guilt-induction strategies should be greater guilt in the partner. Partner guilt is likely an important and desirable endpoint for anxious individuals be￾cause successfully inducing guilt provides evidence of the partner’s caring. Guilt-inducing tactics only work to the extent that the targeted partner cares about and is committed to the relationship (Baumeister et al., 1994, 1995). Accordingly, the feeling and expression of guilt, even in the absence of reparative actions, can improve the hurt person’s emotional state because guilt communicates concern and commitment (Baumeister et al., 1994). This is likely to be the primary impetus for anxious individuals’ guilt-induction strategies; guilt ensures the partner is motivated to maintain the relationship and provides essential reassurance of the partner’s regard. For these reasons, the partner’s guilt might have positive effects on anxious individuals’ felt-security and relationship satisfaction. We consider this possibility next. Attachment Anxiety and the Long-Term Consequences of Guilt In examining the causes and consequences of guilt and guilt￾induction strategies, prior research has relied on retrospective accounts of guilt-related experiences (Baumeister et al., 1995; Leith & Baumeister, 1998; Tangney, Miller, Flicker, & Hill￾Barlow, 1996; Vangelisti et al., 1991), reactions to hypothetical scenarios (e.g., Covert, Tangney, Maddux, & Heleno, 2003; Lopez et al., 1997), self-reported use of guilt-based strategies (e.g., Bui et al., 1994; Howard et al., 1986), and associations with individual differences in guilt proneness (e.g., Covert et al., 2003; Tangney et al., 1992; Tangney, Wagner, Hill-Barlow, Marschall, & Gramzow, 1996). The results across studies indicate that guilt is associated with greater closeness and commitment to relationship partners, more empathy and concern, lower aggression, and more construc￾tive problem solving and making amends. For these reasons, guilt is typically seen as a prosocial emotion that functions to maintain and enhance relationships. However, no prior research has exam￾ined how guilt experienced within important relationship interac￾tions might shape relationship outcomes across time, or whether the outcomes of guilt depend on who is eliciting or feeling guilt. Benefits and Costs of the Partner Feeling Guilty The relationship-enhancing processes described above suggest that the partner’s guilt will have a variety of benefits for the hurt individual. As outlined above, in addition to repairing specific transgressions, partner guilt can signal care and commitment (Baumeister et al., 1994). This commitment-signaling function might be particularly important in building feelings of relationship This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. 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