1236 Part F Field and Service Robotics (2)the user of a rehabilitation robot is,by definition, a comfort and functional level appropriate for effective a person with a disability,which means that physical, use of the robot. sensory,communication,and/or cognitive limitations in accessing the commands and controls of a robot need 53.3.2 Types and Examples to be handled on a systems level by the designers of of Assistive Rehabilitation Robots robots and their interfaces,with critical attention to uni- versal design principles;and(3)all rehabilitation robots As mentioned in the Introduction.assistive robots can require individualization of the interface to each user be divided into three main categories:manipulation aids, by the engineering and therapy professionals in charge mobility aids.and cognitive aids.Each can be subdivided of prescription and fitting,since disabilities vary con- as follows.Manipulation aids are commonly divided into siderably in how they restrict adaptability to standard fixed,portable,and mobile subtypes.Mobility aids are configurations [53.109]. divided into electric wheelchairs with autonomous navi- Interfaces of assistive robots tap into the residual gation features and smart walkers.Cognitive aids are communication capabilities of each user.For exam- divided into communication aids such as pet robots and ple,many people with tetraplegia retain the ability to autonomous caretaker robots.These categories are in- move a hand,arm,foot or the head in a repeatable troduced below,and representative systems that have even if range-limited way,and possibly even in two undergone scientific user studies or are commercial axes,such as forward-backwards and left-right.With products are presented (Fig.53.3).Other examples are proper placement of push buttons,a joystick,or non- mentioned in the history in Sect.53.1.3. contact position measurement device,a rehabilitation engineer and therapist can develop a custom solution Manipulation Aids:Fixed Base for each of their clients with disabilities to control Common robots of this type are ADL and vocational 53.3 a wheelchair computer and robot.In addition,adaptive manipulation aids and kitchen robots.In the US,the hardware and software for control of a computer,such professional vocational assistive robot(ProVAR)is a re- as head-position cursor control,eye-trackers,speech search prototype based initially on a PUMA-260 robot recognition systems,track balls,and special keyboards, arm mounted on a I m transverse overhead track that al- can be used to provide access to computer-based robot lows the robot to manipulate objects and operate devices functionality. on side shelves and the tabletop,bringing objects (like Even more so than for able-bodied computer and a drink of water or throat lozenge)to the robot's operator. robot users,redundancy in input modality is important The interface is via a Java or virtual-reality modeling lan- for persons with disabilities to prevent a system from guage (VRML)plug-in to a common Internet browser, becoming inoperable due to a simple interface malfunc- delivering high-level control to disabled office workers tion or calibration problem.Providing two means of in a conventional pull-down menu and control screen creating a mouse click action(for example,a separate interface [53.14,110].This system and its predecessor button placed next to a cursor-control track ball,as well DeVAR have been field tested by over 50 subjects at as dwell time on a software button on-screen),even if five rehabilitation clinics to assess feasibility and ac- one is inherently slower than the other,allows continued ceptability [53.111,112].At a cost of over USS 100000 and uninterrupted use of the computer without outside currently,it is poised to be re-engineered with a simpler, assistance even if one of the two fails. cheaper arm for eventual product introduction. For therapy robots,physical interfaces resemble In the European Union (EU),following a devel- those for physical and occupational therapy equip- opment path parallel to ProVAR's,is the AfMAS. ment in general and have a commonality with sports TER/RAID workstation,whose concept,instead of equipment interfaces as well,with adjustable hook-and-being built into a workstation,includes a 2 mx3m robot loop-type straps,heat-formable plastic cuffs,soft rubber,work area in the user's office to store objects and place foam-based materials,and durable coverings for abra-appliances,next to the user's own office space.The sys- sion resistance and long wear.After a session or two for tem has been developed over a 20 year span and is in fitting and adaptation,a person using a therapy robot can limited production [53.16]. often use the same interface for a long period of time. The kitchen robot Giving-A-Hand,developed at the In summary,the keys to interface design are cus- Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna in Pisa,Italy,is a low- tomizability,individualization,functional redundancy, degree-of-freedom device for mounting on the front rail adaptability,and patience in getting the interface to of a kitchen counter and able to move food contain-1236 Part F Field and Service Robotics (2) the user of a rehabilitation robot is, by definition, a person with a disability, which means that physical, sensory, communication, and/or cognitive limitations in accessing the commands and controls of a robot need to be handled on a systems level by the designers of robots and their interfaces, with critical attention to uni￾versal design principles; and (3) all rehabilitation robots require individualization of the interface to each user by the engineering and therapy professionals in charge of prescription and fitting, since disabilities vary con￾siderably in how they restrict adaptability to standard configurations [53.109]. Interfaces of assistive robots tap into the residual communication capabilities of each user. For exam￾ple, many people with tetraplegia retain the ability to move a hand, arm, foot or the head in a repeatable even if range-limited way, and possibly even in two axes, such as forward–backwards and left–right. With proper placement of push buttons, a joystick, or non￾contact position measurement device, a rehabilitation engineer and therapist can develop a custom solution for each of their clients with disabilities to control a wheelchair computer and robot. In addition, adaptive hardware and software for control of a computer, such as head-position cursor control, eye-trackers, speech recognition systems, track balls, and special keyboards, can be used to provide access to computer-based robot functionality. Even more so than for able-bodied computer and robot users, redundancy in input modality is important for persons with disabilities to prevent a system from becoming inoperable due to a simple interface malfunc￾tion or calibration problem. Providing two means of creating a mouse click action (for example, a separate button placed next to a cursor-control track ball, as well as dwell time on a software button on-screen), even if one is inherently slower than the other, allows continued and uninterrupted use of the computer without outside assistance even if one of the two fails. For therapy robots, physical interfaces resemble those for physical and occupational therapy equip￾ment in general and have a commonality with sports equipment interfaces as well, with adjustable hook-and￾loop-type straps, heat-formable plastic cuffs, soft rubber, foam-based materials, and durable coverings for abra￾sion resistance and long wear. After a session or two for fitting and adaptation, a person using a therapy robot can often use the same interface for a long period of time. In summary, the keys to interface design are cus￾tomizability, individualization, functional redundancy, adaptability, and patience in getting the interface to a comfort and functional level appropriate for effective use of the robot. 53.3.2 Types and Examples of Assistive Rehabilitation Robots As mentioned in the Introduction, assistive robots can be divided into three main categories: manipulation aids, mobility aids, and cognitive aids. Each can be subdivided as follows. Manipulation aids are commonly divided into fixed, portable, and mobile subtypes. Mobility aids are divided into electric wheelchairs with autonomous navi￾gation features and smart walkers. Cognitive aids are divided into communication aids such as pet robots and autonomous caretaker robots. These categories are in￾troduced below, and representative systems that have undergone scientific user studies or are commercial products are presented (Fig. 53.3). Other examples are mentioned in the history in Sect. 53.1.3. Manipulation Aids: Fixed Base Common robots of this type are ADL and vocational manipulation aids and kitchen robots. In the US, the professional vocational assistive robot (ProVAR) is a re￾search prototype based initially on a PUMA-260 robot arm mounted on a 1 m transverse overhead track that al￾lows the robot to manipulate objects and operate devices on side shelves and the tabletop, bringing objects (like a drink of water or throat lozenge) to the robot’s operator. The interface is via a Java or virtual-reality modeling lan￾guage (VRML) plug-in to a common Internet browser, delivering high-level control to disabled office workers in a conventional pull-down menu and control screen interface [53.14, 110]. This system and its predecessor DeVAR have been field tested by over 50 subjects at five rehabilitation clinics to assess feasibility and ac￾ceptability [53.111,112]. At a cost of over US$ 100 000 currently, it is poised to be re-engineered with a simpler, cheaper arm for eventual product introduction. In the European Union (EU), following a devel￾opment path parallel to ProVAR’s, is the AfMAS￾TER/RAID workstation, whose concept, instead of being built into a workstation, includes a 2 m× 3 m robot work area in the user’s office to store objects and place appliances, next to the user’s own office space. The sys￾tem has been developed over a 20 year span and is in limited production [53.16]. The kitchen robot Giving-A-Hand, developed at the Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna in Pisa, Italy, is a low￾degree-of-freedom device for mounting on the front rail of a kitchen counter and able to move food contain￾Part F 53.3