322 Fermentation and Biochemical Engineering handbook must also consider heating and/or cooling requirements as well as to deliver the desired head pressure to overcome hydraulic pressure drop Operating costs must also consider equipment maintenance, cost of cleaning chemicals and labor costs. CFF systems in general, have substan- ially lower maintenance and labor costs compared with other competing technologies. Cleaning chemical costs are typically low and account for only about l to 4%of the total operating costs. 131 6.8 Safety and Environmental Considerations The proper and efficient operation of a cross-flow filtration system requires a design based on sound engineering principles and must rigorously adhere to safe engineering practices. CFF systems must be equipped with high pressure switches to safely diffuse a high pressure situation and must also use materials and design criteria per American Society for Testing and Materials(ASTM) standards. Proper insulation is required in accordance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA)regulations for high surface temperatures or hot-spot when operating at elevated tempera tures. For corrosive chemicals, proper handling and disposal procedures must be followed for operator safet Containers approved by OSHa and other regulatory agencies must be used when transporting or transferring hazardous chemicals. In addition, proper procedures must be followed when mixing chemicals, either within the manufacturing process or while handling waste solutions The majority of CFF processes are operated in a closed configuration which minimizes vapor emissions. Some traditional techniques such centrifugal processes may generate aerosol foaming in the air( e.g., patho- gens)which is hig 7.0 APPLICATIONS OVERVIEW Due to the highly proprietary nature of fermentation of biochemical products, the published descriptions on cross-flow filtration performance are very limited. This section will review some of the more important types of applications where cross-flow filtration is used. The performance descrip tions are limited by available published information which is often incom- plete. As a result, at best, only qualitative or general comparisons can be made between the various technology alternative322 Fermentation and Biochemical Engineering Handbook must also consider heating andor cooling requirements as well as to deliver the desired head pressure to overcome hydraulic pressure drop. Operating costs must also consider equipment maintenance, cost of cleaning chemicals and labor costs. CFF systems in general, have substan￾tially lower maintenance and labor costs compared with other competing technologies. Cleaning chemical costs are typically low and account for only about 1 to 4% of the total operating costs.[3] 6.8 Safety and Environmental Considerations The proper and efficient operation of a cross-flow filtration system requires a design based on sound engineering principles and must rigorously adhere to safe engineering practices. CFF systems must be equipped with high pressure switches to safely diffise a high pressure situation and must also use materials and design criteria per American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. Proper insulation is required in accordance with Occupational Safety andHealth Administration (OSHA) regulations for high surface temperatures or hot-spot when operating at elevated tempera￾tures. For corrosive chemicals, proper handling and disposal procedures must be followed for operator safety. Containers approved by OSHA and other regulatory agencies must be used when transporting or transferring hazardous chemicals. In addition, proper procedures must be followed when mixing chemicals, either within the manufacturing process or while handling waste solutions. The majority of CFF processes are operated in a closed configuration which minimizes vapor emissions. Some traditional techniques such as centrifugal processes may generate aerosol foaming in the air (e.g., patho￾gens) which is highly undesirable. 7.0 APPLICATIONS OVERVIEW Due to the highly proprietary nature of fermentation of biochemical products, the published descriptions on cross-flow filtration performance are very limited. This section will review some of the more important types of applications where cross-flow filtration is used. The performance descrip￾tions are limited by available published information which is often incom￾plete. As a result, at best, only qualitative or general comparisons can be made between the various technology alternatives