x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Wu Yuwen were all immensely supportive at crucial points during the writing of this book. The doctoral work at Cambridge with which this project began was supported by a British Academy Major Studentship.A Kennedy Schol- arship provided the funds for a stimulating academic year at Harvard,as well as a summer spent working at the Hoover Institution at Stanford. At the postdoctoral stage,further funding was provided by the British Academy-Economic and Social Research Council/Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Exchange Programme,the Hayter Fund of the Univer- sity of Oxford,and the Junior Research Fellows'Fund of Wolfson Col- lege,Oxford.I am most grateful to all those bodies for their assistance. Note on the Text I greatly appreciated the help I received from librarians and archivists at a variety of institutions:the University Library and Faculty of Orien- tal Studies Library,Cambridge;the Bodleian Library and Institute for Chinese Studies Library,Oxford;the Harvard-Yenching Library;the Hoover Institution Library,Stanford;the Liaoning Provincial Archives and Provincial Library,Shenyang;the National Library of China,Bei- I have used pinyin and Hepburn romanizations for Chinese and Japa- jing;the Second Archives,Nanjing;and the Academia Historia,Taipei. nese terms respectively.The only exceptions are certain Chinese names Finally,this book would not have been possible without the love and that are better known in English in other romanizations:thus,Chiang support of my parents,Pamina,and Katharine. Kaishek (rather than Jiang Jieshi),KMT (GMD or Guomindang), Kwantung (Guandong),and Sun Yatsen(Sun Zhongshan).However, rather than"Peiping,I have referred to the city of Beiping,the name given to Beijing by the Nationalist government between 1928 and 1949.A list of abbreviations used in the notes is provided at the start of the notes