When Do the Advantaged See the Disadvantages of Others? target comes to resemble the perspective-taker's own THE CASE OF TEACH FOR AMERICA self-representation"(Galinsky and Moskowitz 2000. p.709).Namely,perspective-takers make the same at- TFA is a prominent civilian national service program, tributions for others that they would have made if they established in 1990 with a mission "to enlist,develop had found themselves in that situation.In this study,the and mobilize as many as possible of our nation's most perspective-takers"are advantaged Americans and promising future leaders to grow and strengthen the the“targets"”are disadvantaged Americans.. movement for educational equity and excellence.'4 While extended contextualized intergroup contact TFA was created with a two-pronged theory of change is with a set of individuals,perspective-taking gener- In the short-term,TFA aspires for its teachers or corps alizes to an entire out-group.Specifically,contact that members to affect positive change in the classroom in leads to more positive evaluations of individuals one their two years of service.In the longer term,TFA as- interacts with leads to more positive evaluations of pires for its corps members to be so transformed by those individuals'most salient group category (e.g., their experiences in the classroom that they would lead racial group and class).According to rich research on systemic change from their positions of power after perspective-taking,these positive evaluations include their service in TFA (Foote 2008).In 1993.TFA be a decrease in the denial of discrimination,which is the came a charter program of AmeriCorps,an organiza- tendency to believe that intergroup disparities do not tion created by the federal government to expand na- stem from institutional and individual-level discrimi tional service,and in 2004.TFA began receiving direct nation (Todd,Bodenhausen,and Galinsky 2012),en- appropriations from the federal government.Over the gendering more positive attitudes toward social policy last 25 years,more than 50,000 Americans have par- designed to redress intergroup inequalities.Given the ticipated in TFA,working with 10 million children in target group becomes more "selflike"with enhanced 52 regions within 36 states.And TFA has become an perspective-taking,there should also be a reduction attractive opportunity for recent college graduates and in "actor-observer bias"-a tendency to attribute one's one of the most visible national service programs;over 4号 own actions to the particular situation and attribute an- 50,000 individuals applied to TFA's 2015 corps alone. other person's actions to the actor's overall disposition At more than 130 U.S.colleges and universities,over 5 rather than to situational factors (Jones and Nisbett percent of the senior class applied to TFA. 1971).Thus,if perspective-taking occurs,the following TFA is a strong case to consider the effects of two predictions should come into fruition. nonmilitary national service on perspective-taking be- Prediction 1:Decrease in"denial of discrimination" tween advantaged and disadvantaged communities for increasing perceptions of injustice.Extended contextu- a number of reasons.First,TFA attracts a large group alized intergroup contact through national service will of high socioeconomic status Americans.A college de- cause advantaged Americans to question the fairness gree is an eligibility requirement to join TFA.7 With of the status quo and see economic,political,and social only 34 percent of Americans holding a college de- systems as more unfair. gree (DOE 2014),TFA admits can be considered ad- Prediction 2:Decrease in "actor-observer bias"en- vantaged members of America's social fabric from the hancing perceptions of out-group victimization.Ex- fact that they are all college graduates.TFA admits tended contextualized intergroup contact through na- can also be considered advantaged as most participants tional service will cause advantaged Americans to shift have college-educated parents (93 percent of alumni their beliefs for why low-income individuals and racial survey respondents),and educational attainment is a minorities are in a lower socioeconomic position to key factor in the reproduction of socioeconomic in- 8 be more external.Participants will increase their focus equality (Black.Devereux.and Salvanes 2005:Rouse on structuralistic as opposed to individualistic explana- and Kane 1995).Over 80 percent of our alumni survey tions of poverty. respondents are from the middle or upper economic Additionally,if there is greater perspective-taking class,with nearly half noting they are at least from the then prejudice reduction should also take hold.An upper middle class.Moreover,64.2 percent are white increase in perspective-taking for a particular group and to the extent that "white privilege"exists (Roith- is a meaningful mechanism by which prejudice for mayr 2014),this is another indicator that the average that particular group declines (Pettigrew and Tropp TFA participant is part of a more advantaged class. 2008).Moreover,in viewing an out-group in more "selflike"terms,increased perspective-taking should 四 translate to increased identification with the targeted 4 Source:www.teachforamerica.org/about-us/our-mission(accessed out-group (Todd,Bodenhausen,and Galinsky 2012). March 27 2016). As such,if predictions 1 and 2 hold,we should see the Source: www.teachforamerica.org/about-us/annual-report (ac following. cessed February 19,2016). Source: www.teachforamerica.org/sites/default/files/2012-13 Prediction 3:Decrease in prejudice and increase in Press_Kit_Updated_06_19_12.pdf(accessed October 1,2017). identification with the out-group.Extended contextu- Source: www.teachforamerica.org/teach-with-tfa/tfa-and-you/ alized intergroup contact through national service will applicant-prerequisites(accessed March 72016). cause advantaged individuals to have decreased lev- TFA participants are advantaged on several dimensions;however, els of prejudice and increased levels of positive af- TFA is not a monolithic organization with regards to race and class,and diversity is a core value of TFA.Source:https://www fect toward the disadvantaged groups with which they teachforamerica.org/about-us/our-story/our-values (accessed Octo- interact. ber1,2017). 725When Do the Advantaged See the Disadvantages of Others? target comes to resemble the perspective-taker’s own self-representation” (Galinsky and Moskowitz 2000, p. 709). Namely, perspective-takers make the same at￾tributions for others that they would have made if they had found themselves in that situation. In this study, the “perspective-takers” are advantaged Americans and the “targets” are disadvantaged Americans. While extended contextualized intergroup contact is with a set of individuals, perspective-taking gener￾alizes to an entire out-group. Specifically, contact that leads to more positive evaluations of individuals one interacts with leads to more positive evaluations of those individuals’ most salient group category (e.g., racial group and class). According to rich research on perspective-taking, these positive evaluations include a decrease in the denial of discrimination, which is the tendency to believe that intergroup disparities do not stem from institutional and individual-level discrimi￾nation (Todd, Bodenhausen, and Galinsky 2012), en￾gendering more positive attitudes toward social policy designed to redress intergroup inequalities. Given the target group becomes more “selflike” with enhanced perspective-taking, there should also be a reduction in “actor-observer bias”—a tendency to attribute one’s own actions to the particular situation and attribute an￾other person’s actions to the actor’s overall disposition rather than to situational factors (Jones and Nisbett 1971). Thus, if perspective-taking occurs, the following two predictions should come into fruition. Prediction 1: Decrease in “denial of discrimination” increasing perceptions of injustice. Extended contextu￾alized intergroup contact through national service will cause advantaged Americans to question the fairness of the status quo and see economic, political, and social systems as more unfair. Prediction 2: Decrease in “actor-observer bias” en￾hancing perceptions of out-group victimization. Ex￾tended contextualized intergroup contact through na￾tional service will cause advantaged Americans to shift their beliefs for why low-income individuals and racial minorities are in a lower socioeconomic position to be more external. Participants will increase their focus on structuralistic as opposed to individualistic explana￾tions of poverty. Additionally, if there is greater perspective-taking, then prejudice reduction should also take hold. An increase in perspective-taking for a particular group is a meaningful mechanism by which prejudice for that particular group declines (Pettigrew and Tropp 2008). Moreover, in viewing an out-group in more “selflike” terms, increased perspective-taking should translate to increased identification with the targeted out-group (Todd, Bodenhausen, and Galinsky 2012). As such, if predictions 1 and 2 hold, we should see the following. Prediction 3: Decrease in prejudice and increase in identification with the out-group. Extended contextu￾alized intergroup contact through national service will cause advantaged individuals to have decreased lev￾els of prejudice and increased levels of positive af￾fect toward the disadvantaged groups with which they interact. THE CASE OF TEACH FOR AMERICA TFA is a prominent civilian national service program, established in 1990 with a mission “to enlist, develop, and mobilize as many as possible of our nation’s most promising future leaders to grow and strengthen the movement for educational equity and excellence.”4 TFA was created with a two-pronged theory of change. In the short-term, TFA aspires for its teachers or corps members to affect positive change in the classroom in their two years of service. In the longer term, TFA as￾pires for its corps members to be so transformed by their experiences in the classroom that they would lead systemic change from their positions of power after their service in TFA (Foote 2008). In 1993, TFA be￾came a charter program of AmeriCorps, an organiza￾tion created by the federal government to expand na￾tional service, and in 2004, TFA began receiving direct appropriations from the federal government. Over the last 25 years, more than 50,000 Americans have par￾ticipated in TFA, working with 10 million children in 52 regions within 36 states. And TFA has become an attractive opportunity for recent college graduates and one of the most visible national service programs; over 50,000 individuals applied to TFA’s 2015 corps alone.5 At more than 130 U.S. colleges and universities, over 5 percent of the senior class applied to TFA.6 TFA is a strong case to consider the effects of nonmilitary national service on perspective-taking be￾tween advantaged and disadvantaged communities for a number of reasons. First, TFA attracts a large group of high socioeconomic status Americans. A college de￾gree is an eligibility requirement to join TFA.7 With only 34 percent of Americans holding a college de￾gree (DOE 2014), TFA admits can be considered ad￾vantaged members of America’s social fabric from the fact that they are all college graduates. TFA admits can also be considered advantaged as most participants have college-educated parents (93 percent of alumni survey respondents), and educational attainment is a key factor in the reproduction of socioeconomic in￾equality (Black, Devereux, and Salvanes 2005; Rouse and Kane 1995). Over 80 percent of our alumni survey respondents are from the middle or upper economic class, with nearly half noting they are at least from the upper middle class. Moreover, 64.2 percent are white, and to the extent that “white privilege” exists (Roith￾mayr 2014), this is another indicator that the average TFA participant is part of a more advantaged class.8 4 Source: www.teachforamerica.org/about-us/our-mission (accessed March 27, 2016). 5 Source: www.teachforamerica.org/about-us/annual-report (ac￾cessed February 19, 2016). 6 Source: www.teachforamerica.org/sites/default/files/2012-13_ Press_Kit_Updated_06_19_12.pdf (accessed October 1, 2017). 7 Source: www.teachforamerica.org/teach-with-tfa/tfa-and-you/ applicant-prerequisites (accessed March 7, 2016). 8 TFA participants are advantaged on several dimensions; however, TFA is not a monolithic organization with regards to race and class, and diversity is a core value of TFA. Source: https://www. teachforamerica.org/about-us/our-story/our-values (accessed Octo￾ber 1, 2017). 725 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. Shanghai JiaoTong University, on 26 Oct 2018 at 03:53:05, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000412