CT. Herakovich/Mechanics Research Communications 41(2012)1-20 Table Early activities, contributions and accomplishments in mechanics of composites. Papyrus paper developed pc Egypt 1780s Youngs modulus defined Great Britain general equations of elasticity aude-Louis Navier Anisotropic equations of elasticity ugustin-Louis Cauchy Strain energy density defined-21 elastic constant 887/1889 Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity AEH. Love Great Britain Uniform stress modulus prediction A. Reuss Fiberglass fabrics available to market Owns-Corning and H. goldsmith Mathematical Theory of elasticity ISA opic Elastic Body G. Lekhnitshkii Russia Japan Society of Reinforced Plastics formed bricated glass reinforced plastic glider of Unidirectional lamina A. Kelly and G Davies Great Britain L Broutman and R.H. Kro Journal of Composite Materials Vol 1 No. 1 Composite Materials Workshop Tsai, Halpin and pagano USA The Analysis of Laminated Composite Structures ee calcite mer on Composite Materials: Analysis shton, Halpin and Petit Ashton and J.M. whitney eory of Anisotropic plates SA Ambartsumya Russia Mechanics of composite Materials R.M. Jones Mechanics of composite Materia R. M. Christensen USA (Soltes, 1961)and aramid( Kwolek, 1964 ). The development of the 2. The early years advanced fibers in the late 1950s and early 1960s spurred great interest in the development of theoretical and applied mechanics Table 1 summarizes the early activities, contributions and or applications to fibrous composite materials and structures accomplishments related to advances in the mechanics of fibrous rom theearliest applications of fibrous composites by the Egyp- composites. The remainder of this paper is organized according tians to the introduction of advanced composites in the second half to subject matter. Topics covered include constitutive equations, of the 20th Century, roughly 6000 years have passed. The progress micromechanics, laminates, thermal and moisture effects, damage in the use of fibrous composites in the most recent fifty years and failure, experimental methods, interlaminar stresses, tubes, and years. The Egyptians were artisans in that they undoubtedly This leaves many related subjects still to be reviewe t programs was much greater than that during the preceding nearly six thou- plates, nanocomposites, and university and governm developed their products through trial and error. during the past fifty years, theoretical and applied mechanics has been employed 3. Anisotropic, elastic constitutive equations in order to exploit the vast potential of man-made fibrous com- posites. These advancements are exemplified dramatically by the Discussions on the advances in the development of constitu- application of advanced fibrous composites in SpaceShipOne and its tive equations for elastic materials can be found in Love's work unchvehiclewhIteKnight(fiG.4,seehttp://www.scaled.com/).(1892-1927),Sokolnikoff(1946/1956)andTimoshenko'sHistoryof Space ShipOne is an all-composite, suborbital spaceplane launched Strength of Materials(1953). The development of constitutive equa tions for homogeneous, elastic materials began with the work of Hooke(1678)who stated that for an elastic body there is propor- tionality between stress and strain Navier(1821) generalized this Fig 3. Brick with straw fibers Fig 4. White knight and Space shiponeC.T. Herakovich / Mechanics Research Communications 41 (2012) 1–20 3 Table 1 Early activities, contributions and accomplishments in mechanics of composites. Year Activity People Country 4000 BC Papyrus paper developed Egyptians Egypt 1660 Hooke’s Law Robert Hooke Great Britain 1780s Young’s modulus defined Thomas Young Great Britain 1821 Formulation of general equations of elasticity Claude-Louis Navier France 1822 Anisotropic equations of elasticity Augustin-Louis Cauchy France 1837 Strain energy density defined – 21 elastic constants George Green Great Britain 1887/1889 Uniform strain modulus prediction W. Voigt Germany 1892 Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity A.E.H. Love Great Britain 1929 Uniform stress modulus prediction A. Reuss Germany 1935 Papers on anisotropic bodies S.G. Lekhnitshkii Russia 1938 Owens-Corning developed fiberglass Owens-Corning USA 1941 Air Force Materials Lab initiated composites activity Robert T. Schwartz USA 1941 Fiberglass fabrics available to market Owns-Corning and H. Goldsmith USA 1946 Mathematical Theory of Elasticity I.S. Sokolnikoff USA 1947 Anisotropic Plates S.G. Lekhnitshkii Russia 1950 Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body S.G. Lekhnitshkii Russia 1954 Japan Society of Reinforced Plastics formed Tsuyoshi Hayashi Japan 1954 Fabricated glass reinforced plastic glider Tsuyoshi Hayashi Japan 1961 Theory of Anisotropic Shells S.A. Ambartsumyan Russia 1965 Strength of Unidirectional Lamina A. Kelly and G.J. Davies Great Britain 1967 Modern Composite Materials L.J. Broutman and R.H. Krock USA 1967 Journal of Composite Materials Vol. 1 No. 1 Stephen W. Tsai USA 1968 Composite Materials Workshop Tsai, Halpin and Pagano USA 1969 The Analysis of Laminated Composite Structures Lee Calcote USA 1969 Primer on Composite Materials: Analysis Ashton, Halpin and Petit USA 1970 Theory of Laminated Plates J.E. Ashton and J.M. Whitney USA 1970 Theory of Anisotropic Plates S.A. Ambartsumyan Russia 1972 Theory of Fiber Reinforced Materials Zvi Hashin USA 1975 Mechanics of Composite Materials R.M. Jones USA 1979 Mechanics of Composite Materials R.M. Christensen USA (Soltes, 1961) and aramid (Kwolek, 1964). The development of the advanced fibers in the late 1950s and early 1960s spurred great interest in the development of theoretical and applied mechanics for applications to fibrous composite materials and structures. Fromthe earliest applications offibrous composites by the Egyp￾tians to the introduction of advanced composites in the second half of the 20th Century, roughly 6000 years have passed. The progress in the use of fibrous composites in the most recent fifty years was much greater than that during the preceding nearly six thou￾sand years. The Egyptians were artisans in that they undoubtedly developed their products through trial and error. During the past fifty years, theoretical and applied mechanics has been employed in order to exploit the vast potential of man-made fibrous com￾posites. These advancements are exemplified dramatically by the applicationof advancedfibrous composites inSpaceShipOne andits launch vehicle White Knight, (Fig. 4, see http://www.scaled.com/). SpaceShipOne is an all-composite, suborbital spaceplane launched in 2003 by Scaled Composites. Fig. 3. Brick with straw fibers. 2. The early years Table 1 summarizes the early activities, contributions and accomplishments related to advances in the mechanics of fibrous composites. The remainder of this paper is organized according to subject matter. Topics covered include constitutive equations, micromechanics, laminates, thermal and moisture effects, damage and failure, experimental methods, interlaminar stresses, tubes, plates, nanocomposites, and university and government programs. This leaves many related subjects still to be reviewed. 3. Anisotropic, elastic constitutive equations Discussions on the advances in the development of constitu￾tive equations for elastic materials can be found in Love’s work (1892–1927), Sokolnikoff (1946/1956) and Timoshenko’s History of Strength of Materials (1953). The development of constitutive equa￾tions for homogeneous, elastic materials began with the work of Hooke (1678) who stated that for an elastic body there is propor￾tionality between stress and strain. Navier (1821) generalized this Fig. 4. White knight and SpaceShipOne