ON THE CHING TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 147 孟甲，and the Assistant Department Director LI Chuin李俊，asen- voys to Annam and Tali.In 1266 he sent the Vice-President of the Board of War,,Hei-ti黑的，as envoy to Japan.Inl291 he sent the President of the Board of Ceremonies,,CHANG Li-tao張立道，asen- voy to Annam;in 1293 he also sent LIANG Tseng and CH'EN Fu as envoys to Annam,to summon envoys to come to the Court; he also gave an imperial command that the son (of the ruler of Annam)should come for an audience. "The reigning dynasty has united the whole empire into one. Various envoys have been sent out in order to show compassion to those at a distance.To such countries as Korea (Kao-li),Annam,and Champa imperial proclamations have been promulgated and the im- perial commands have been sent to them.Furthermore by imperial command envoys have gone and conferred the imperial seal.The dynasty has also sent down fragrant presents in order to make sacrifices to the mountains and streams of these countries.Its purpose in soothing and subduing the barbarians of the four quarters is most complete.We now in detail set forth the ceremonies connected with the issue of imperial proclamations,the conferring of a seal,and the bestowals and gifts to form the section on 'Sending Envoys....'" From the official resume just quoted,several things stand out. Relations between the Son of Heaven and his tributaries were on an ethical basis,and hence reciprocal.The tributaries were submissive and reverent,the Emperor was compassionate and condescending. These reciprocal relationships required formal expression.Presentation of tribute was a ritual performance,balanced by the forms of im- perial hospitality and bestowal of imperial gifts.Hence the great im- portance of ceremonies,so complicated that they must be practiced under guidance beforehand.The detailed regulations given at length in official Chinese works 2 might fruitfully be compared with the feudal and ecclesiastical ceremonies of medieval Europe. 2Ibid.82.1-8. Cf.Wan-li hui-tien 58,8b line 9):"Reception by a foreign country of a seal and goods:...the foreign king and his officials in a body all kneel.The envoy proclaims the imperial decree,reading,'His Majesty the Emperor commands his envoy- (to be filled in by name)to take a seal and confer it on your country's king- and also confer- -goods.'When this proclamation is finished,the envoy holds up in both hands the seal which is conferred and the- —goods,.and facing the west gives them to the foreign king.The foreign king kneels and receives them,and gives them to his attendants.When this is finished,the ceremonial conductor (yin-liON THE CH'ING TRIBUTARY SYSTEM 147 A IF, and the Assistant Department Director Li Chiin A4d, as en￾voys to Annam and Tali. In 1266 he sent the Vice-President of the Board of War, Hei-ti >M1, as envoy to Japan. In 1291 he sent the President of the Board of Ceremonies, CHANG Li-tao 4K<'X, as en￾voy to Annam; in 1293 he also sent LIANG Tseng Mt and CH'EN Fu Ie as envoys to Annam, to summon envoys to come to the Court; he also gave an imperial command that the son (of the ruler of Annam) should come for an audience. " The reigning dynasty has united the whole empire into one. Various envoys have been sent out in order to show compassion to those at a distance. To such countries as Korea (Kao-li), Annam, and Champa imperial proclamations have been promulgated and the im￾perial commands have been sent to them. Furthermore by imperial command envoys have gone and conferred the imperial seal. The dynasty has also sent down fragrant presents in order to make sacrifices to the mountains and streams of these countries. Its purpose in soothing and subduing the barbarians of the four quarters is most complete. We now in detail set forth the ceremonies connected with the issue of imperial proclamations, the conferring of a seal, and the bestowals and gifts to form the section on 'Sending Envoys....' A" 22 From the official resume just quoted, several things stand out. Relations between the Son of Heaven and his tributaries were on an ethical basis, and hence reciprocal. The tributaries were submissive and reverent, the Emperor was compassionate and condescending. These reciprocal relationships required formal expression. Presentation of tribute was a ritual performance, balanced by the forms of im￾perial hospitality and bestowal of imperial gifts. Hence the great im￾portance of ceremonies, so complicated that they must be practiced under guidance beforehand. The detailed regulations given at length in official Chinese works 23 might fruitfully be compared with the feudal and ecclesiastical ceremonies of medieval Europe. 22 Ibid. 32.1-3. 23 Cf. Wan-li hui-tien 58, 8b line 9): " Reception by a foreign country of a seal and goods: . . . the foreign king and his officials in a body all kneel. The envoy proclaims the imperial decree, reading, 'His Majesty the Emperor commands his envoy (to be filled in by name) to take a seal and confer it on your country's king and also confer goods.' When this proclamation is finished, the envoy holds up in both hands the seal which is conferred and the goods, and facing the west gives them to the foreign king. The foreign king kneels and receives them, and gives them to his attendants. When this is finished, the ceremonial conductor (yin-li