reference to ones own is essential at all stages of learning. Students with extensive experience in translation who have had little practice in using the foreign language directly must, above all, write very simply at first, using only easy constructions which they are convinced are correct, forgetting for the time being their own language and rigorously avoiding translating from it. More complex forms, more varied vocabulary and sentence structure should evolve naturally in step with the student's increasing knowledge of the language. The student introduces a certain form or construction only when he is thoroughly familiar with it and is certain that it is normally used in this way. As he achieves additional conidence, he can begin to take an interest in the use of the language to create diverse effects. He may want to convey impressions of suspense, calm, dignity humour, of music or poetry. 75) He will master the art of logical explanation, of exact letter-writing of formal speeches and natural conversation and of vivid impressionistic description. But he will still write within the limits of Ms ability and knowledge. And, as a leamer, he will still be studying and observing conventional English usage in all that he writes Passage 4 We usually assume that an innate characteristic of human beings is the close and immediate attachment between the newborn child and its parents, especially its mother. Because abandonment or abuse of children seems to defy such beliefs, we are baffled by reports of widespread parental abuse of children. A look at the past may provide a different perspective on the present According to some scholars, maternal indifference to infants may have been typical of the Middle Ages. Aries says there is evidence that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries parents showed little affection for their children, and Edward Shorter argues that this indifference was probably typical among the ordinary people of Western Europe, even in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 71) The death of young children seems to have been accepted casually, and although overt infanticide was frowned upon, allowing children to die was sometimes encouraged, or at least tolerated. For example, in Western Europe it was common for mothers to leave infants at foundling hospitals or with rural wet nurses, both of which resulted in very high mortality rates. 72)Whether these practices were typically the result of economic desperation, the difficulty of raising an out-of-wedlock child, or lack of attachment to an infant is not clear, but the fact that many well-to-do married women casually chose to give their infants to wet nurses. despite the higher mortality risks. suggests that the reasons were not always economic difficulty or fear of social stigma. While the practice of overt infanticide and child abandonment may have been relatively widespread in parts of Western Europe, it does not seem to have been prevalent in either England or America. 73)_Indeed, authorities in both those countries in the sixteenth century prosecuted infanticide cases more vigorously than other forms of murder, and the practice of leaving infants with wet nurses went out of fashion in England by the end of the eighteenth century. By the eighteenth century in Western Europe, parents were expressing more interest in their children and more affection for them, and by the nineteenth century, observers were beginning to criticize parents for being too child-centered Nevertheless parents were still not prevented from abusing their own children, as long as it did not result in death. 74) Because the parent-child relationship was regarded as sacred and beyond State intervention. it was not until the late nineteenth century that reformers in England were able to persuade law makers to pass legislation to protect children from abusive parents._75) Ironically, efforts to prevent cruelty to animals preceded those to accomplish the same ends for children by nearly a half century. A scientist who does research in economic psychology and who wants to predict the way in which consumers will spend their money must study consumer behaviour. 71) He must obtain data both on the resources of consumers and on the motives9 reference to one's own is essential at all stages of learning. Students with extensive experience in translation who have had little practice in using the foreign language directly must, above all, write very simply at first, using only easy constructions which they are convinced are correct, forgetting for the time being their own language and rigorously avoiding translating from it. More complex forms, more varied vocabulary and sentence structure should evolve naturally in step with the student's increasing knowledge of the language. The student introduces a certain form or construction only when he is thoroughly familiar with it and is certain that it is normally used in this way. As he achieves additional conidence, he can begin to take an interest in the use of the language to create diverse effects. He may want to convey impressions of suspense, calm, dignity, humour, of music or poetry. 75) He will master the art of logical explanation, of exact letter-writing, of formal speeches and natural conversation and of vivid impressionistic description. But he will still write within the limits of Ms ability and knowledge. And, as a learner, he will still be studying and observing conventional English usage in all that he writes. Passage 4 We usually assume that an innate characteristic of human beings is the close and immediate attachment between the newborn child and its parents, especially its mother. Because abandonment or abuse of children seems to defy such beliefs, we are baffled by reports of widespread parental abuse of children. A look at the past may provide a different perspective on the present. According to some scholars, maternal indifference to infants may have been typical of the Middle Ages. Aries says there is evidence that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries parents showed little affection for their children, and Edward Shorter argues that this indifference was probably typical among the ordinary people of Western Europe, even in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 71) The death of young children seems to have been accepted casually, and although overt infanticide was frowned upon, allowing children to die was sometimes encouraged, or at least tolerated. For example, in Western Europe it was common for mothers to leave infants at foundling hospitals or with rural wet nurses, both of which resulted in very high mortality rates. 72) Whether these practices were typically the result of economic desperation, the difficulty of raising an out-of-wedlock child, or lack of attachment to an infant is not clear, but the fact that many well-to-do married women casually chose to give their infants to wet nurses, despite the higher mortality risks, suggests that the reasons were not always economic difficulty or fear of social stigma. While the practice of overt infanticide and child abandonment may have been relatively widespread in parts of Western Europe, it does not seem to have been prevalent in either England or America. 73) Indeed, authorities in both those countries in the sixteenth century prosecuted infanticide cases more vigorously than other forms of murder, and the practice of leaving infants with wet nurses went out of fashion in England by the end of the eighteenth century. By the eighteenth century in Western Europe, parents were expressing more interest in their children and more affection for them, and by the nineteenth century, observers were beginning to criticize parents for being too child-centered. Nevertheless parents were still not prevented from abusing their own children, as long as it did not result in death. 74) Because the parent-child relationship was regarded as sacred and beyond State intervention, it was not until the late nineteenth century that reformers in England were able to persuade law makers to pass legislation to protect children from abusive parents. 75) Ironically, efforts to prevent cruelty to animals preceded those to accomplish the same ends for children by nearly a half century. Passage 5 A scientist who does research in economic psychology and who wants to predict the way in which consumers will spend their money must study consumer behaviour. 71) He must obtain data both on the resources of consumers and on the motives