An introduction to biotechnological innovations in the chemical industry The application of the principles of integrated life cycle management, generally favours the replacement of products dependent upon conventional chemical and physical processes by biotechnological products and processes. As we described earier, most biotechnological processes use biological (renewable) feedstocks and energy sources and the products are also compatable with biological (living) system. These products re readily biodegradable and retumed to the natural geocoding and, as a consequence, do not pose the same intensity of pollution caused by the recalcitrant materials and byproducts generated by physico-chemical processes. Biotechnology therefore offers a more environmentally friendly and sustainable approach to fulfilling the needs of society. It can achieve this by, for example, offering ermative routes to the manufacture of products hitherto made by potentially nvironmentally damaging routes. Alternative, it enables the production of novel roducts, which are less environmentally damaging than products made via conventional chemical routes. We will use two examples to illustrate these principles nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixation via the Haber-Bosch process is a well established chemical pI). The which dinitrogen gas(N2) and hydrogen are combined to produce ammonia (NH3).The major use of this produce is as a nitrogen fertiliser. Several million tonnes are produced annually. On the positive side of ammonia(usually as an ammonium salt)has undoubtedly increased the yields of crops. In strictly limited economic terms,the increase in crop yields achieved by the use of ammonia from the Haber-Bosch process more than outweighs the cost of producing the ammonia. with this limited perspective, the Haber-Bosch process is undoubtedly successful. If, however, we take an integrated life management approach, the issue is not so clear cut. The reduction of dinitrogen is an energy expensive process. Energy is needed to split the stable N=N bond. In the Haber-Bosch process, high temperatures(400C)and pressures are used to achieve significant conversions. This energy input is invariably derived from non-renewable energy sources. However, the environmentally damaging eutrophication effects of this activity is not limited to the production of ammonia. Much of the mmonia-based fertilisers applied to land is washed out (leached)from soils. This ends up in rivers and in impounded water, causing eutrophication (increase in organie content). The consequence of this, is these waters support greater blooms' of algae, which in time die and decompose. This decomposition is accompanied by the onsumption of oxygen, which tends to lead to anoxia. Thus the waters lose amenity value because they no longer support fish life, are more difficult to treat to become potable; they become odourous and are no longer suitable for bathing. Thus, if one adds to the cost of the Haber-Bosch process the true environmental costs, then the virtue of this process is less than clear cut. Biotechnology, however, offers an alternative approach to achieving the same objective as the Haber-Bosch process. It has long been known that bacteria capable of utilising atmospheric nitrogen can supply plants with nitrogen in a form that the plants can use and very little of this "fixed"nitrogen is leached from the soil. In essence, what biotechnology offers is the potential to widen the range of crops that can be supported sing biologically generated nitrogen fertilisers. These biological nitrogen-fixers use ological energy sources(carbohydrates)to drive fixation and do not lead to the same levels of entrophication as does the application of chemically produced ammonia Even on the rather simplified arguments described here, it should be clear that biotechnological approaches are generally more en vironmentally friendly and that we can apply biotechnological strategies to inorganic, as well as organic chemicals. WeAn introduction to biotechnological innovations in the chemical industry 5 The application of the principles of integrated life cycle management, generally favours the replacement of products dependent upon conventional chemical and physical processes by biotechnological products and processes. As we described earlier, most biotechnological processes use biological (renewable) feedstocks and energy sources and the products are also cornpatable with biological (living) system. These products are readily biodegradable and returned to the natural geocycling and, as a consequence, do not pose the same intensity of pollution caused by the recalcitrant materials and byproducts generated by physicochemical processes. Biotechnology therefore offers a more environmentally friendly and sustainable approach to fulfilling the needs of society. It can achieve this by, for example, offering alternative routes to the manufacture of products hitherto made by potentially environmentally damaging routes. Alternative, it enables the production of novel products, which are less environmentally damaging than products made via conventional chemical routes. We will use two examples to illustrate these principles. Nitrogen fixation via the Haber-Bosch process is a well established chemical process in which dinitrogen gas (N2) and hydrogen are combined to produce ammonia (NEG). The major use of this produce is as a nitrogen fertiliser. Several million tonnes are produced annually. On the positive side, use of ammonia (usually as an ammonium salt) has undoubtedly increased the yields of crops. In strictly limited economic terms, the increase in crop yields achieved by the use of ammonia from the Haber-Bosch process more than outweighs the cost of producing the ammonia. With this limited perspective, the Haber-Bosch process is undoubtedly successful. If, however, we take an integrated life management approach, the issue is not so clear cut. The reduction of dinitrogen is an energy expensive process. Energy is needed to split the stable N=N bond. In the Haber-Bosch process, high temperatures (400°C) and pressures are used to achieve significant conversions. This energy input is invariably derived from non-renewable energy sources. However, the environmentally damaging effects of this activity is not limited to the production of ammonia. Much of the ammonia-based fertilisers applied to land is washed out (leached) from soils. This ends up in rivers and in impounded water, causing eutrophication (increase in organic content). The consequence of this, is these waters support greater 'blooms' of algae, which in time die and decompose. This decomposition is accompanied by the consumption of oxygen, which tends to lead to anoxia. Thus the waters lose amenity value because they no longer support fish life, are more difficult to treat to become potable; they become odourous and are no longer suitable for bathing. Thus, if one adds to the cost of the Haber-Bosch process the true environmental costs, then the virtue of this process is less than clear cut. Biotechnology, however, offers an alternative approach to achieving the same objective as the Haber-Bosch process. It has long been known that bacteria capable of utilising atmospheric nitrogen can supply plants with nitrogen in a form that the plants can use and very little of this "fixed" nitrogen is leached from the soil. In essence, what biotechnology offers is the potential to widen the range of crops that can be supported using bioiogically generated nitrogen fertilisers. These biological nitrogen-fixers use biological energy sources (carbohydrates) to drive fixation and do not lead to the same levels of entrophication as does the application of chemically produced ammonia. Even on the rather simplified arguments described here, it should be clear that biotechnological approaches are generally more environmentally friendly and that we can apply biotechnological strategies to inorganic, as well as organic chemicals. We nitrogen fixation eutrophication