THE RICH,RICHER AND THE POOR,POORER 311 heads,assistant directors,assistant managers,and production jobs held by men in highvolume metal- vice presidents also found themselves jobless.GM bending manufacturing industries had paid higher shed more than 40,000 white-collar employees and wages than the routine production jobs held by planned to eliminate another 25,000 by the mid-women in textiles and data processing.As both sets 1990s(Wall Street Journal 1990).As America's core of jobs have been lost,American women in routine pyramids metamorphosed into global webs,many production have gained more equal footing with routine producers were as obsolete as routine American men-equally poor footing,that is.This workers on the line. is a major reason why the gender gap between male As has been noted,foreign-owned webs are hiring and female wages began to close during the 1980s. some Americans to do routine production in theThe second of the three boats,carrying in-person United States.Philips,Sony,and Toyota factories servers,is sinking as well,but somewhat more are popping up all over-to the self-congratulatory slowly and unevenly.Most in-person servers are applause of the nation's governors and mayors,who paid at or just slightly above the minimum wage have lured them with promises of tax abatements and many work only part-time,with the result that and new sewers,among other amenities.But as their take-home pay is modest,to say the least. these ebullient politicians will soon discover,the Nor do they typically receive all the benefits foreign-owned factories are highly automated and (health care,life insurance,disability,and so forth) will become far more so in years to come.Routine garnered by routine producers in large manufac- production jobs account for a small fraction of the turing corporations or by symbolic analysts cost of producing most items in the United States affiliated with the more affluent threads of global and other advanced nations,and this fraction will webs.;In-person servers are sheltered from the continue to decline sharply as computer-integrated direct effects of global competition and,like everyone robots take over.In 1977 it took routine producers else,benefit from access to lower-cost products thirty-five hours to assemble an automobile in the from around the world.But they are not immune United States;it is estimated that by the mid-1990s,to its indirect effects. Japanese-owned factories in America will be pro-For one thing,in-person servers increasingly ducing finished automobiles using only eight hours compete with former routine production workers, of a routine producer's time(International Motor who,no longer able to find well-paying routine Vehicles Program 1989). production jobs,have few alternatives but to seek The productivity and resulting wages of American in-person service jobs.The Bureau of Labor Statistics workers who run such robotic machinery may be estimates that of the 2.8 million manufacturing relatively high,but there may not be many such workers who lost their jobs during the early 1980s, jobs to go around.A case in point:In the late 1980s,fully one-third were rehired in service jobs paying at Nippon Steel joined with America's ailing Inland least 20 per cent less(US Dept of Labor 1986).In- Steel to build a new $400 million cold-rolling mili person servers must also compete with high school fifty miles west of Gary,Indiana.The mill was graduates and dropouts who years before had celebrated for its state-of-the-art technology,which moved easily into routine production jobs but no cut the time to produce a coil of steel from twelve longer can.And if demographic predictions about days to about one hour.In fact,the entire plant the American work force in the first decades of the could be run by a small team of technicians,which twenty-first century are correct(and they are likely became clear when Inland subsequently closed two to be,since most of the people who will comprise of its old cold-rolling mills,laying off hundreds the work force are already identifiable),most new of routine workers.Governors and mayors take entrants into the job market will be black or His- note:Your much-ballyhooed foreign factories panic men,or women-groups that in years past may end up employing distressingly few of your have possessed relatively weak technical skills.This constituents. will result in an even larger number of people Overall,the decline in routine jobs has hura men crowding into in-person services.Finally,in-person more than women.This is because the routine servers will be competing with growing numbers ofTHE RICH, RICHER AND THE POOR, POORER 311  heads, assistant directors, assistant managers, and vice presidents also found themselves jobless. GM shed more than 40,000 white­collar employees and planned to eliminate another 25,000 by the mid­ 1990s (Wall Street Journal 1990). As America's core pyramids metamorphosed into global webs, many routine producers were as obsolete as routine workers on the line. As has been noted, foreign­owned webs are hiring some Americans to do routine production in the United States. Philips, Sony, and Toyota factories are popping up all over—to the self­congratulatory applause of the nation's governors and mayors, who have lured them with promises of tax abatements and new sewers, among other amenities. But as these ebullient politicians will soon discover, the foreign­owned factories are highly automated and will become far more so in years to come. Routine production jobs account for a small fraction of the cost of producing most items in the United States and other advanced nations, and this fraction will continue to decline sharply as computer­integrated robots take over. In 1977 it took routine producers thirty­five hours to assemble an automobile in the United States; it is estimated that by the mid­1990s, Japanese­owned factories in America will be pro­ ducing finished automobiles using only eight hours of a routine producer's time (International Motor Vehicles Program 1989). The productivity and resulting wages of American workers who run such robotic machinery may be relatively high, but there may not be many such jobs to go around. A case in point: In the late 1980s, Nippon Steel joined with America's ailing Inland Steel to build a new $400 million cold­rolling mili fifty miles west of Gary, Indiana. The mill was celebrated for its state­of­the­art technology, which cut the time to produce a coil of steel from twelve days to about one hour. In fact, the entire plant could be run by a small team of technicians, which became clear when Inland subsequently closed two of its old cold­rolling mills, laying off hundreds of routine workers. Governors and mayors take note: Your much­ballyhooed foreign factories may end up employing distressingly few of your constituents. Overall, the decline in routine jobs has hura men more than women. This is because the routine production jobs held by men in highvolume metal￾bending manufacturing industries had paid higher wages than the routine production jobs held by women in textiles and data processing. As both sets of jobs have been lost, American women in routine production have gained more equal footing with American men—equally poor footing, that is. This is a major reason why the gender gap between male and female wages began to close during the 1980s. The second of the three boats, carrying in­person servers, is sinking as well, but somewhat more slowly and unevenly. Most in­person servers are paid at or just slightly above the minimum wage and many work only part­time, with the result that their take­home pay is modest, to say the least. Nor do they typically receive all the benefits (health care, life insurance, disability, and so forth) garnered by routine producers in large manufac￾turing corporations or by symbolic analysts affiliated with the more affluent threads of global webs.; In­person servers are sheltered from the direct effects of global competition and, like everyone else, benefit from access to lower­cost products from around the world. But they are not immune to its indirect effects. For one thing, in­person servers increasingly compete with former routine production workers, who, no longer able to find well­paying routine production jobs, have few alternatives but to seek in­person service jobs. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that of the 2.8 million manufacturing workers who lost their jobs during the early 1980s, fully one­third were rehired in service jobs paying at least 20 per cent less (US Dept of Labor 1986). In￾person servers must also compete with high school graduates and dropouts who years before had moved easily into routine production jobs but no longer can. And if demographic predictions about the American work force in the first decades of the twenty­first century are correct (and they are likely to be, since most of the people who will comprise the work force are already identifiable), most new entrants into the job market will be black or His￾panic men, or women—groups that in years past have possessed relatively weak technical skills. This will result in an even larger number of people crowding into in­person services. Finally, in­person servers will be competing with growing numbers of