Changing Exposure to Trade Figure 2.Predicted Effects of Expanding Exposure to Trade Land-Labor Ratio High Low Class cleavage: Urban-rural cleavage: Land and capital free-trading, Capital and labor free-trading, Advanced Economy assertive assertive Labor defensive,protectionist Land defensive,protectionist (Radicalism) Urban-rural cleavage: Class cleavage: Land free-trading,assertive Labor free-trading,assertive Backward Economy Labor and capital defensive, Land and capital defensive, protectionist protectionist (U.S.Populism) (Socialism) tion.Again,the demonstration is easy: its extensive exports of that factor to the the United States imported-and Ger- United States,Canada,Australia,New many exported(not least to the United Zealand,and Africa.Britain therefore States)-workers.The theory,of course, falls into the upper right-hand quadrant predicts class conflict in Germany,with of Figure 1 and is predicted to exhibit a labor the "revolutionary"and free-trading rural-urban cleavage,with fronts oppo- element and with land and capital united site to those found in the United States: in support of protection and imperialism. capitalists and labor unite in support of Surely this description will not ring false free trade and in demands for expanded to any student of German socialism or of political power,while landowners and Germany's infamous "marriage of iron agriculture support protection and im- and rye."7 For the United States,con- perialism. versely,the theory predicts-quite accu- While this picture surely obscures rately,I submit-urban-rural conflict, important nuances,it illuminates a crucial with the agrarians now assuming the difference between Britain and,for exam- "revolutionary"and free-trading role and ple,Germany in this period:in Britain, with capital and labor uniting in a protec- capitalists and labor did unite effectively tionist and imperialist coalition.E.E. in the Liberal party and forced an Schattschneider (1960)or Walter Dean expanded suffrage and curtailment of(still Burnham (1970)could hardly have de- principally landowning)aristocratic scribed more succinctly the history of power;in Germany,with liberalism shat- populism and of the election of 1896. tered(Sheehan 1978),the suffrage for the Britain,on the other hand,was already powerful state parliaments was actually an advanced economy in the later nine- contracted,and-far from eroding aristo- teenth century,one in which capital was cratic power-the bourgeoisie grew more so abundant that it was exported in vast and more verjunkert in style and quantities (Feis 1965,Chap.1).That it aspirations. was also rich in labor is demonstrated by 1125Changing Exposure to Trade Figure 2. Predicted Effects of Expanding Exposure to Trade Land-Labor Ratio Advanced Economy Backward Economy High Class cleavage: Land and capital free-trading, assertive Labor defensive, protectionist Urban-rural cleavage: Land free-trading, assertive Labor and capital defensive, protectionist (U.S. Populism) Low Urban-rural cleavage: Capital and labor free-trading, assertive Land defensive, protectionist (Radicalism) Class cleavage: Labor free-trading, assertive Land and capital defensive, protectionist (Socialism) tion. Again, the demonstration is easy: the United States imported-and Ger￾many exported (not least to the United States)-workerse6 The theory, of course, predicts class conflict in Germany, with labor the "revolutionary" and free-trading element and with land and capital united in support of protection and imperialism. Surely this description will not ring false to any student of German socialism or of Germany's infamous "marriage of iron and rye."' For the United States, con￾versely, the theory predicts-quite accu￾rately, I submit-urban-rural conflict, with the agrarians now assuming the "revolutionary" and free-trading role and with capital and labor uniting in a protec￾tionist and imperialist coalition. E. E. Schattschneider (1960) or Walter Dean Burnham (1970) could hardly have de￾scribed more succinctly the history of populism and of the election of 1896.8 Britain, on the other hand, was already an advanced economy in the later nine￾teenth century, one in which capital was so abundant that it was exported in vast quantities (Feis 1965, Chap. 1).That it was also rich in labor is demonstrated by its extensive exports of that factor to the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Afri~a.~ Britain therefore falls into the upper right-hand quadrant of Figure 1and is predicted to exhibit a rural-urban cleavage, with fronts oppo￾site to those found in the United States: capitalists and labor unite in support of free trade and in demands for expanded political power, while landowners and agriculture support protection and im￾perialism. While this picture surely obscures important nuances, it illuminates a crucial difference between Britain and, for exam￾ple, Germany in this period: in Britain, capitalists and labor did unite effectively in the Liberal party and forced an expanded suffrage and curtailment of (still principally landowning) aristocratic power; in Germany, with liberalism shat￾tered (Sheehan 1978), the suffrage for the powerful state parliaments was actually contracted, and-far from eroding aristo￾cratic power-the bourgeoisie grew more and more verjunkert in style and aspirations