THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW SEPTEMBER 2004 Since we allocate the same phone number fo ample four resumes(two high-quality and two applicants with different names, we cannot use low-quality) that fit the job description and re a person name in the outgoing message quirements as closely as possible. In some While we do not expect positive feedback cases, we slightly alter the resumes to improve from an employer to take place via postal mail, the quality of the match, such as by adding the resumes still need postal addresses. We there- knowledge of a specific software program fore construct fictitious addresses based on real One of the high- and one of the low-quality streets in Boston and Chicago using the white resumes selected are then drawn at random to Pages. We select up to three addresses in each receive African-American names, the other 5-digit zip code in Boston and Chicago. Within high- and low-quality resumes receive White cities,we randomly assign addresses across all names. We use male and female names for resumes. We also create eight e-mail addresses, sales jobs, whereas we use nearly exclusivel four for Chicago and four for Boston. These female names for administrative and clerical e-mail addresses are neutral with respect to both jobs to increase callback rates. Based on sex race and sex. Not all applicants are given an race, city, and resume quality, we assign a re- e-mail address. The e-mail addresses are used sume the appropriate phone number. We also almost exclusively for the higher-quality re- select at random a postal address. Finally, e sumes. This procedure leaves us with a bank of mail addresses are added to most of the high names, phone numbers, addresses, and e-mail quality resumes. The final resumes are addresses that we can assign to the template formatted, with fonts, layout, and cover letter resumes when responding to the employment style chosen at random. The resumes are then faxed (or in a few cases mailed)to the em- ployer. All in all, we respond to more than C. Responding to Ads 1, 300 employment ads over the entire sample period and send close to 5, 000 resumes 2001 and January 2002 in Boston and between July 2001 and May 2002 in Chicago. 22Over D. Measuring Responses that period, we surveyed all employment ads in We measure whether a given resume elicits a the Sunday editions of The Boston Globe and callback or e-mail back for an interview. For The Chicago Tribune in the sales, administra- each phone or e-mail response, we use the con- tive support, and clerical and customer services tent of the message left by the employer(name sections. We eliminate any ad where applicants of the applicant, company name, telephone were asked to call or appear in person. In fact, number for contact)to match the response to the most of the ads we surveyed in these job cate- corresponding resume-ad pair. Any attempt gories ask for applicants to fax in or(more by employers to contact applicants via postal rarely) mail in their resume. We log the name mail cannot be measured in our experiment (when available) and contact information for since the addresses are fictitious. Several hu each employer, along with any information on man resource managers confirmed to us that he position advertised and specific require- ments(such as education, experience, or com puter skills). We also record whether or not the ad explicitly states that the employer is an equal resumes that are appropriate matches for a given ad In such pportunity employer. instances, we send only two resumes. For each ad. we use the bank of resumes to Though the same na ce that no given ad receives multiple Male names were used for a few administrative jobs in 2 The e-mail addresses are registered on Yahoo. com, the first month of the experiment Angelfire. com, or Hotmail. com 26 In the first month of the experiment, a few high- This period spans tighter and slacker labor markets. In quality resumes were sent without e-mail addresses and a our data, this is apparent as callback rates(and number of low-quality resumes were given e-mail addresses. See new ads)dropped after September 11, 2001. Interestingly, Table 3 for details however, the racial gap we measure is the same across these 27Very few employers used e-mail to contact an appli- two periods cant back996 THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW SEPTEMBER 2004 Since we allocate the same phone number for applicants with different names, we cannot use a person name in the outgoing message. While we do not expect positive feedback from an employer to take place via postal mail, resumes still need postal addresses. We there￾fore construct fictitious addresses based on real streets in Boston and Chicago using the White Pages. We select up to three addresses in each 5-digit zip code in Boston and Chicago. Within cities, we randomly assign addresses across all resumes. We also create eight e-mail addresses, four for Chicago and four for ~oston.~~ These e-mail addresses are neutral with respect to both race and sex. Not all applicants are given an e-mail address. The e-mail addresses are used almost exclusively for the higher-quality re￾sumes. This procedure leaves us with a bank of names, phone numbers, addresses, and e-mail addresses that we can assign to the template resumes when responding to the employment ads. C. Responding to Ads The experiment was carried out between July 2001 and January 2002 in Boston and between July 2001 and May 2002 in ~hica~o.~~ Over that period, we surveyed all employment ads in the Sunday editions of The Boston Globe and The Chicago Tribune in the sales, administra￾tive support, and clerical and customer services sections. We eliminate any ad where applicants were asked to call or appear in person. In fact, most of the ads we surveyed in these job cate￾gories ask for applicants to fax in or (more rarely) mail in their resume. We log the name (when available) and contact information for each employer, along with any information on the position advertised and specific require￾ments (such as education, experience, or com￾puter skills). We also record whether or not the ad explicitly states that the employer is an equal opportunity employer. For each ad,-we use the bank of resumes to "The e-mail addresses are registered on Yahoo.com, Angelfire.com, or Hotmail.com. 22 This period spans tighter and slacker labor markets. In our data, this is apparent as callback rates (and number of new ads) dropped after September 11, 2001. Interestingly, however, the racial gap we measure is the same across these two periods. sample four resumes (two high-quality and two low-quality) that fit the job description and re￾quirements as closely as possible.23 In some cases, we slightly alter the resumes to improve the quality of the match, such as by adding the knowledge of a specific software program. One of the high- and one of the low-quality resumes selected are then drawn at random to receive African-American names, the other high- and low-quality resumes receive White names.24 We use male and female names for sales jobs, whereas we use nearly exclusively female names for administrative and clerical jobs to increase callback rates.25 Based on sex, race, city, and resume quality, we assign a re￾sume the appropriate phone number. We also select at random a postal address. Finally, e￾mail addresses are added to most of the high￾quality resumes.26 The final resumes are formatted, with fonts, layout, and cover letter style chosen at random. The resumes are then faxed (or in a few cases mailed) to the em￾ployer. All in all, we respond to more than 1,300 employment ads over the entire sample period and send close to 5,000 resumes. D. Measuring Responses We measure whether a given resume elicits a callback or e-mail back for an interview. For each phone or e-mail response, we use the con￾tent of the message left by the employer (name of the applicant, company name, telephone number for contact) to match the response to the corresponding resume-ad pair.27 Any attempt by employers to contact applicants via postal mail cannot be measured in our experiment since the addresses are fictitious. Several hu￾man resource managers confirmed to us that 27 In some instances, our resume bank does not have four resumes that are appropriate matches for a given ad. In such instances, we send only two resumes. 24 Though the same names are repeatedly used in our experiment, we guarantee that no given ad receives multiple resumes with the same name. 25 Male names were used for a few administrative jobs in the first month of the experiment. 26 In the first month of the experiment, a few high￾quality resumes were sent without e-mail addresses and a few low-quality resumes were given e-mail addresses. See Table 3 for details. 27 Very few employers used e-mail to contact an appli￾cant back