6 Joseph H.Hulse Trends in Food Science Technology 15(2004)3-18 During the 4th and 5th centuries,BCE,the Greek rational distinction.Though it needed Maxwell's math- school of Hippocrates,published over 70 treatises on ematical genius 40 years later to transform Faraday's medical theories and practices,and prescribed more electromagnetic induction principles into electric motors than 300 remedies,most from plants,to be administered and power generators,the 1850s mark the point from orally or via other orifices.The Greeks were aware of which new technologies based on scientific principles potential dangers in drug therapy;the Greek word appeared alongside empirically discovered technologies oapuokov (Pharmakon)being translated as 'drug', used to process foods,textiles,drugs and ceramics. 'medicine',poison'or 'magic potion'.The Greeks After his mentor Humphrey Davy discovered the believed that health (eucrasia)resulted from a harmonic anaesthetic nitrous oxide,in 1818 Michael Faraday blend,disease (dyscrasia)from imbalance among four demonstrated that ether was a more effective anaes- humours:black bile,yellow bile,phlegm and blood.A thetic.But before von Liebig published his 'Organic tri-humorous concept of air,bile and phlegm existed Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathol- among Ayurvedic Indians. ogy'in the mid-19th century,studies on the effectiveness Some 300 years after Hippocrates,Dioscorides,a of drugs can best be described as blindly empirical. Greek physician,regarded as the father of Materia For many centuries in Europe,pharmacy was the Medica,formulated over 600 remedies from plant and business of apothecaries who extracted and com- animal tissues.Dioscorides'medicines were prescribed pounded medicines from natural vegetable and mineral for more than 1500 years.Galen of Pergamon,a sources.In Ancient Greece,physicians and apothecaries physician of the 2nd century CE,added more veget- were discrete professions (an anoOek was a shop that able remedies,known as Galenicals,to Dioscorides' sold drugs).In 1617,King James I created the collection. Society of Apothecaries,giving them responsibility for Until the middle of the 19th century,medicine and production and sale of drugs and some poisons.Benja- pharmacy were more magical and mystical than scien- min Franklyn defined the respective roles of American tific.Plantagenet physicians treated fevers by burying physicians and apothecaries,with laws that licensed victims up to the neck in a dunghill;gout was treated apothecaries to sell drugs,poisons and narcotics.The with asses'hooves;wealthy patients afflicted with ague, first codified food and drug laws were enacted in 1860 in itch or erysipelas were dosed with finely ground the United Kingdom amethysts,pearls and sapphires. In the 19th century,British apothecaries worked with It is difficult to discover what useful drugs the alche- a Materia Medica cabinet containing 270 samples of mists discovered in their pursuit of the Elixir vitae,the roots,barks,leaves,seeds and chemicals.The British elusive substance that would ensure eternal life.Alche- Pharmaceutical Society received a Royal Charter in mists wrote their reports in cryptic codes and obscure 1843.A consolidated British Pharmacopoeia was pub- symbols to confuse their competitors.What is compre- lished in 1864 and revised in 1898 and 1914.The 1864 hensible is more redolent of the kitchen than the edition described only four synthetic drugs;over 80 laboratory.Alchemical substances included sugar of were listed in the 1914 edition,almost all imported from lead,butter of antimony,oil of vitriol,cream of tartar Germany.Before World War I,Britain had no synthetic and milk of lime. pharmaceutical industry,only a few vaccines being Paracelsus,a Swiss alchemist of the 15th century,is processed. sometimes regarded as the father of chemistry.He dis- puted Galen's theories and developed the notion of From empiricism to science iatrochemistry:examination of substances to detect From the mid-1800s analytical chemistry,microscopy possible medicinal potency.He proposed various medical and cytology made impressive progress.Chemotherapy prescriptions. was stimulated by identification of microbial pathogens The first printed medical book:'Laxierkalender'-a and means by which they could be controlled.Wohler's treatise on laxatives-came from the Gutenberg presses conversion of ammonium isocyanate into urea showed in 1457.In 1564,the world's first Pharmacopoeia that naturally occurring organic substances can be syn- Augustina was published in Augsburg.In 1616,the thesized from non-biological chemicals.Pharmacology Royal College of Physicians published the Pharmaco- progressed through research begun in Strasbourg on poeia Londonensis which listed drugs then permitted in specific actions of drugs on particular body tissues.The Britain. world's first Chair of Pharmacology was in Estonia. Discovery of hormones,extracted from endocrine and Pharmaceutical industries ductless glands and later synthesized,added an important In his book'Brave New World',Aldous Huxley pro- dimension to therapeutic medicine and to development of posed that the history of economic and industrial pharmaceutical industries. development is of two periods:pre-and post-Henry Until the 20th century food processing progressed Ford.I would argue pre-and post-Faraday as a more through engineering, pharmaceutical technologiesDuring the 4th and 5th centuries, BCE, the Greek school of Hippocrates, published over 70 treatises on medical theories and practices, and prescribed more than 300 remedies, most from plants, to be administered orally or via other orifices. The Greeks were aware of potential dangers in drug therapy; the Greek word farmakon (Pharmakon) being translated as ‘drug’, ‘medicine’, ‘poison’ or ‘magic potion’. The Greeks believed that health (eucrasia) resulted from a harmonic blend, disease (dyscrasia) from imbalance among four humours: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood. A tri-humorous concept of air, bile and phlegm existed among Ayurvedic Indians. Some 300 years after Hippocrates, Dioscorides, a Greek physician, regarded as the father of Materia Medica, formulated over 600 remedies from plant and animal tissues. Dioscorides’ medicines were prescribed for more than 1500 years. Galen of Pergamon, a physician of the 2nd century CE, added more veget￾able remedies, known as Galenicals, to Dioscorides’ collection. Until the middle of the 19th century, medicine and pharmacy were more magical and mystical than scien￾tific. Plantagenet physicians treated fevers by burying victims up to the neck in a dunghill; gout was treated with asses’ hooves; wealthy patients afflicted with ague, itch or erysipelas were dosed with finely ground amethysts, pearls and sapphires. It is difficult to discover what useful drugs the alche￾mists discovered in their pursuit of the Elixir vitae, the elusive substance that would ensure eternal life. Alche￾mists wrote their reports in cryptic codes and obscure symbols to confuse their competitors. What is compre￾hensible is more redolent of the kitchen than the laboratory. Alchemical substances included sugar of lead, butter of antimony, oil of vitriol, cream of tartar and milk of lime. Paracelsus, a Swiss alchemist of the 15th century, is sometimes regarded as the father of chemistry. He dis￾puted Galen’s theories and developed the notion of iatrochemistry: examination of substances to detect possible medicinal potency. He proposed various medical prescriptions. The first printed medical book: ‘Laxierkalender’—a treatise on laxatives—came from the Gutenberg presses in 1457. In 1564, the world’s first Pharmacopoeia Augustina was published in Augsburg. In 1616, the Royal College of Physicians published the Pharmaco￾poeia Londonensis which listed drugs then permitted in Britain. Pharmaceutical industries In his book ‘Brave New World’, Aldous Huxley pro￾posed that the history of economic and industrial development is of two periods: pre-and post-Henry Ford. I would argue pre-and post-Faraday as a more rational distinction. Though it needed Maxwell’s math￾ematical genius 40 years later to transform Faraday’s electromagnetic induction principles into electric motors and power generators, the 1850s mark the point from which new technologies based on scientific principles appeared alongside empirically discovered technologies used to process foods, textiles, drugs and ceramics. After his mentor Humphrey Davy discovered the anaesthetic nitrous oxide, in 1818 Michael Faraday demonstrated that ether was a more effective anaes￾thetic. But before von Liebig published his ‘Organic Chemistry in its Application to Physiology and Pathol￾ogy’ in the mid-19th century, studies on the effectiveness of drugs can best be described as blindly empirical. For many centuries in Europe, pharmacy was the business of apothecaries who extracted and com￾pounded medicines from natural vegetable and mineral sources. In Ancient Greece, physicians and apothecaries were discrete professions (an apoyek was a shop that sold drugs). In 1617, King James I created the Society of Apothecaries, giving them responsibility for production and sale of drugs and some poisons. Benja￾min Franklyn defined the respective roles of American physicians and apothecaries, with laws that licensed apothecaries to sell drugs, poisons and narcotics. The first codified food and drug laws were enacted in 1860 in the United Kingdom. In the 19th century, British apothecaries worked with a Materia Medica cabinet containing 270 samples of roots, barks, leaves, seeds and chemicals. The British Pharmaceutical Society received a Royal Charter in 1843. A consolidated British Pharmacopoeia was pub￾lished in 1864 and revised in 1898 and 1914. The 1864 edition described only four synthetic drugs; over 80 were listed in the 1914 edition, almost all imported from Germany. Before World War I, Britain had no synthetic pharmaceutical industry, only a few vaccines being processed. From empiricism to science From the mid-1800s analytical chemistry, microscopy and cytology made impressive progress. Chemotherapy was stimulated by identification of microbial pathogens and means by which they could be controlled. Wohler’s conversion of ammonium isocyanate into urea showed that naturally occurring organic substances can be syn￾thesized from non-biological chemicals. Pharmacology progressed through research begun in Strasbourg on specific actions of drugs on particular body tissues. The world’s first Chair of Pharmacology was in Estonia. Discovery of hormones, extracted from endocrine and ductless glands and later synthesized, added an important dimension to therapeutic medicine and to development of pharmaceutical industries. Until the 20th century food processing progressed through engineering, pharmaceutical technologies 6 Joseph H. Hulse / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 3–18