Joseph H.Hulse Trends in Food Science Technology 15(2004)3-18 pressing,began in Egypt and nearby Mediterranean the steam engine,was mechanized faster than food countries 7000 years ago.Commercial bakeries and processes. breweries existed in Babylon and Egypt 5000 years In the British baking industry,mechanical dough before Eduard Buchner and Emil Fischer discovered the mixers were not much in evidence until after 1920. enzymic conversion of carbohydrates. Mechanization moved more rapidly after World War II The history of grain milling illustrates how labour- During the 1930s,in a typical Manchester bakery,six intensive artisanal processes were progressively men working an 8 h shift produced about 2400 loaves. mechanized.The primitive pestel and mortar gave way In 1990,three men working an 8 h shift could produce in Egypt to the saddle stone:where grain spread on a over 65,000 loaves:400 versus 22,000 loaves per man. stationary smooth stone slab was pulverized by an The first significant change came in the 1960s when upper stone pushed backwards and forwards by a British scientists replaced traditional long fermentation kneeling slave.Later,the Greeks devised a shearing processes by high energy mixing of bread doughs con- action by incising herring-bone grooves into the inter- taining ascorbic acid. faces of the upper and lower stones. Continuous malting in breweries began with the In the rotary quern,evident in several ancient Medi- Wanderhaufen moving malt couch.Continuous fer- terranean countries,an upper stone was continuously mentations.in which the substrate passes over an rotated over a lower static stone.By cutting an eye-hole immobilized microorganism or biocatalyst,are now in the centre of the upper stone,grain was fed in a common among modern bioindustries. steady stream,the pulverized product being carried to Humphrey Davy's discovery of finely divided plati- the periphery by centrifugal force.Grain milling was the num as a catalyst led to the catalytic hydrogenation of first known continuous industrial process.Rotary vegetable oils to produce hard fats for shortening and querns were at first driven by slaves walking on a margarine.About the same time,solvent extraction of treadmill,later by camels or donkeys. vegetable oils competed with mechanical expression.In After the Romans invented the water wheel,through- contrast to food processing,pharmaceutical industries out the Roman empire grain mills were built close by advanced more from chemistry than engineering,start- rivers or running streams.The Domesday Book.Wil- ing in the 18th century in the German dyestuffs indus- liam I's inventory of the nation's assets published in tries after von Hofmann was appointed Professor of 1085,recorded over 5000 water mills in Britain.The first Chemistry at the University of Berlin. windmills appeared in Persia (now Iran)in the 10th century CE.In 1784,an early version of James Watt's Pharmaceuticals in ancient times steam engine was installed in a London flour mill.Less Survival and health.the fate of the human soul and than 100 years ago,in North America,more grain mills body after death,and the supernatural influence of the were powered by water wheels than by steam engines. sun,moon and stars intrigued many of our early ante- The first mill powered by electric motors came on cedents.Primitive peoples searched for panaceas and stream in 1887 in Wyoming. palliatives to cure their diseases.Early Palestinians and Though more precisely engineered,modern roller Sumerians believed disease was a punishment for sin mills with their incised steel break rolls operate on the and could be mitigated by magical charms and drugs same principles as the early saddle stone and rotary with supernatural powers.Shen-Nung (ca 2700 BCE)is quern.Hand winnowing has its modern equivalent in acclaimed as the Chinese founder of acupuncture and the middlings purifier,an enclosed vibrating gravity drug therapy.He and his contemporaries described table with screens of diverse mesh size.Separated bran diabetes,smallpox,measles.cholera and various dysen- is removed by suction fans. teries.Their 1800 medical prescriptions included ephe- A smart indigenous software programme enables drine,camphor,and cod liver oil.Arsenic and mercury modern wheat flour mills in India to be operated from compounds acted as bactericides.Respiratory diseases a desk top computer.At the same time,poor rural were treated by surrounding the patient in a pile of Indian women grind local grains by pestel and mortar burning herbs. or saddle stone,and extract oil from groundnuts by The Egyptian Ebers papyrus (ca 1550 BCE),dis- rotary querns. covered by 20th century archeologists,describes treat- ments for rheumatism.schistosomiasis,diabetes and Mechanization of traditional biotechnologies intestinal parasites.It lists 875 drugs compounded from The patterns and pace of mechanization have pro- ca 500 substances:metallic salts,such vegetable extracts gressed differently among different industries.Though as gentian,senna,castor oil,vermifiuge and henbane. the transition from rural domestic spinning and weaving Sumerian cuneiform tablets from Hammurabi's reign into large mechanized factories evolved over more describe hepatic diseases,fevers,gonorrhoea,various than two centuries,in Britain the textile industry, strokes and scabies.Drugs included hellebore (believed stimulated by cheap coal carried on canal barges,and to cure madness),mandrake root and opiumpressing, began in Egypt and nearby Mediterranean countries 7000 years ago. Commercial bakeries and breweries existed in Babylon and Egypt 5000 years before Eduard Buchner and Emil Fischer discovered the enzymic conversion of carbohydrates. The history of grain milling illustrates how labour￾intensive artisanal processes were progressively mechanized. The primitive pestel and mortar gave way in Egypt to the saddle stone: where grain spread on a stationary smooth stone slab was pulverized by an upper stone pushed backwards and forwards by a kneeling slave. Later, the Greeks devised a shearing action by incising herring-bone grooves into the inter￾faces of the upper and lower stones. In the rotary quern, evident in several ancient Medi￾terranean countries, an upper stone was continuously rotated over a lower static stone. By cutting an eye-hole in the centre of the upper stone, grain was fed in a steady stream, the pulverized product being carried to the periphery by centrifugal force. Grain milling was the first known continuous industrial process. Rotary querns were at first driven by slaves walking on a treadmill, later by camels or donkeys. After the Romans invented the water wheel, through￾out the Roman empire grain mills were built close by rivers or running streams. The Domesday Book, Wil￾liam I’s inventory of the nation’s assets published in 1085, recorded over 5000 water mills in Britain. The first windmills appeared in Persia (now Iran) in the 10th century CE. In 1784, an early version of James Watt’s steam engine was installed in a London flour mill. Less than 100 years ago, in North America, more grain mills were powered by water wheels than by steam engines. The first mill powered by electric motors came on stream in 1887 in Wyoming. Though more precisely engineered, modern roller mills with their incised steel break rolls operate on the same principles as the early saddle stone and rotary quern. Hand winnowing has its modern equivalent in the middlings purifier, an enclosed vibrating gravity table with screens of diverse mesh size. Separated bran is removed by suction fans. A smart indigenous software programme enables modern wheat flour mills in India to be operated from a desk top computer. At the same time, poor rural Indian women grind local grains by pestel and mortar or saddle stone, and extract oil from groundnuts by rotary querns. Mechanization of traditional biotechnologies The patterns and pace of mechanization have pro￾gressed differently among different industries. Though the transition from rural domestic spinning and weaving into large mechanized factories evolved over more than two centuries, in Britain the textile industry, stimulated by cheap coal carried on canal barges, and the steam engine, was mechanized faster than food processes. In the British baking industry, mechanical dough mixers were not much in evidence until after 1920. Mechanization moved more rapidly after World War II. During the 1930s, in a typical Manchester bakery, six men working an 8 h shift produced about 2400 loaves. In 1990, three men working an 8 h shift could produce over 65,000 loaves: 400 versus 22,000 loaves per man. The first significant change came in the 1960s when British scientists replaced traditional long fermentation processes by high energy mixing of bread doughs con￾taining ascorbic acid. Continuous malting in breweries began with the Wanderhaufen moving malt couch. Continuous fer￾mentations, in which the substrate passes over an immobilized microorganism or biocatalyst, are now common among modern bioindustries. Humphrey Davy’s discovery of finely divided plati￾num as a catalyst led to the catalytic hydrogenation of vegetable oils to produce hard fats for shortening and margarine. About the same time, solvent extraction of vegetable oils competed with mechanical expression. In contrast to food processing, pharmaceutical industries advanced more from chemistry than engineering, start￾ing in the 18th century in the German dyestuffs indus￾tries after von Hofmann was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the University of Berlin. Pharmaceuticals in ancient times Survival and health, the fate of the human soul and body after death, and the supernatural influence of the sun, moon and stars intrigued many of our early ante￾cedents. Primitive peoples searched for panaceas and palliatives to cure their diseases. Early Palestinians and Sumerians believed disease was a punishment for sin and could be mitigated by magical charms and drugs with supernatural powers. Shen-Nung (ca 2700 BCE) is acclaimed as the Chinese founder of acupuncture and drug therapy. He and his contemporaries described diabetes, smallpox, measles, cholera and various dysen￾teries. Their 1800 medical prescriptions included ephe￾drine, camphor, and cod liver oil. Arsenic and mercury compounds acted as bactericides. Respiratory diseases were treated by surrounding the patient in a pile of burning herbs. The Egyptian Ebers papyrus (ca 1550 BCE), dis￾covered by 20th century archeologists, describes treat￾ments for rheumatism, schistosomiasis, diabetes and intestinal parasites. It lists 875 drugs compounded from ca 500 substances: metallic salts, such vegetable extracts as gentian, senna, castor oil, vermifiuge and henbane. Sumerian cuneiform tablets from Hammurabi’s reign describe hepatic diseases, fevers, gonorrhoea, various strokes and scabies. Drugs included hellebore (believed to cure madness), mandrake root and opium. Joseph H. Hulse / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 3–18 5