Joseph H.Hulse Trends in Food Science Technology 15(2004)3-18 pharmaceutical and related biotechnological industries. the raw materials and processed products.Foods found Though their historical patterns of growth and devel- to be acceptable and satisfying,and medicinals that opment have differed,food and drugs and the industries cured or alleviated particular maladies were discovered that produce them have long been closely associated. by chance,trial and error,and painful experience. Standards of quality and safety for foods and drugs are The history of food processing,in large part,is a his- customarily administered by the same regulatory tory of bioengineering,the gradual replacement of agency,the US Food and Drug Administration being human hands and energy first by animals,later by typical.As is discussed later,modern food and phar- machines.Industrial processes of fractionation and maceutical processors employ similar technologies and transformation used today were developed hundreds of methods of product and process control. years ago.What began as labour-intensive artisanal Among the earliest historical records(ca 2900 BCE), crafts were progressively mechanized.In addition to the Chinese proclaimed a close association of foods with providing an immense diversity of food products, medicines,both being essential to good health,both food industries have progressively reduced the human derived from plant and animal sources.The Chinese effort and energy needed in factories,restaurants and believe many ailments can be cured by diet.They were homes. the first to add burnt sponge,an aquatic source of iodine,for people suffering from goitre. Food preservation The Emperor Fu-Hsi and his successors advocate that The basic principles of food preservation:control of health depends on two principles:Yin and Yang.Yin (1)active water content,(2)ambient atmosphere.(3) weakness comes from malfunctions among internal temperature,(4)pH;and (5)thermal inactivation of organs and is indicated by a 'hot'condition.red tongue microbial and biochemical sources of spoilage,were and weak pulse.Yang weakness results when internal discovered empirically hundreds of years ago.Medi- organs fail to absorb essential nutrients,indicated by a terranean,Asian and Amerindian people used sun dry- 'cold'condition,Chinese medicinal foods are classified ing to preserve milk,meat,fish,fruits and vegetables, as 'hot'or 'cold','strong'or 'weak'. into their sun-dried pemmican northern Amerindians Among an impressive list of Chinese medicinal foods. added dried berries that provided ascorbic acid.Sliced some are no doubt effective:others of dubious cred- potatoes were freeze-dried by early Amerindians,ice ibility.Horn from deer antlers is claimed to relieve fati- gradually subliming in the dry air and low atmospheric gue,impotence and skeletal deformities.Ginseng root pressure of the high Andes. (Panax schinseng)is claimed,with little reliable phar- Stone age Britons dried grains over open fires to macological evidence,to alleviate diabetes,cardiovas- prevent sprouting.Over 4000 years ago,the Chinese cular,digestive,liver and other diseases.Analyses of preserved fish by osmotic dehydration with salt. different samples from similar ginseng remedies show Republican Romans reduced water activity in meat and significant variance in composition. fruits by adding salt or honey.About 5000 years ago, Oriental beliefs in therapeutic foods is attracting Middle Eastern farmers stored grains in earthenware North Americans,one-third of whom are said to buy amphora each hermetically sealed by an impervious herbal remedies as alternatives to prescription drugs. goat skin.All stages of insect metamorphosis were Americans'search for a nutritional Elixir vitae has been asphyxiated by respired CO2. evident for over half a century.During the 1950s vita- Seneca described how Romans preserved prawns in min supplements were in fashion;during the 1960s pro- snow from the Appenines.The frozen food industry teins and amino acids were in favour:in the 1970s developed after Clarence Birdseye,an American, extensive publicity was given to essential fatty acids and observed how whale,seal and reindeer meat were cholesterol in relation to cardiovascular disfunctions; naturally preserved during the cold Canadian winter. during the 1980s dietary fibre was of paramount inter- Modern canning,bottling and boil-in-the-bag were est.At present the fashion is with 'functional foods' anticipated in Republican Rome where chopped spiced (which beg the question:what are non-functional meats were sealed and boiled inside the cleaned womb foods?)and 'nutraceuticals',foods believed to possess of a sow or the body cavity of a squid. beneficial pharmacological properties.It is not surpriz- Fermentation and pickling of fruits and vegetables is an ing that the Chinese claim to be the originators of ancient practice among Asian and Mediterranean people. nutraceutical concepts. The Babylonians preserved their milk by lactic fermenta- tion.Ethanol was distilled in China over 3000 years ago. Food and drugs:science and technology Homer described wine as“A gift from the gods'”. A characteristic common to food,drugs and most other basic need industries is that technologies dis- Grain milling-the first continuous process covered by perceptive empiricism long preceded any Fractionation of cereal grains by pulverization,siev- scientific understanding of the biochemical properties of ing and winnowing,and extraction of olive oil bypharmaceutical and related biotechnological industries. Though their historical patterns of growth and devel￾opment have differed, food and drugs and the industries that produce them have long been closely associated. Standards of quality and safety for foods and drugs are customarily administered by the same regulatory agency, the US Food and Drug Administration being typical. As is discussed later, modern food and phar￾maceutical processors employ similar technologies and methods of product and process control. Among the earliest historical records (ca 2900 BCE), the Chinese proclaimed a close association of foods with medicines, both being essential to good health, both derived from plant and animal sources. The Chinese believe many ailments can be cured by diet. They were the first to add burnt sponge, an aquatic source of iodine, for people suffering from goitre. The Emperor Fu-Hsi and his successors advocate that health depends on two principles: Yin and Yang. Yin weakness comes from malfunctions among internal organs and is indicated by a ‘hot’ condition, red tongue and weak pulse. Yang weakness results when internal organs fail to absorb essential nutrients, indicated by a ‘cold’ condition, Chinese medicinal foods are classified as ‘hot’ or ‘cold’, ‘strong’ or ‘weak’. Among an impressive list of Chinese medicinal foods, some are no doubt effective; others of dubious cred￾ibility. Horn from deer antlers is claimed to relieve fati￾gue, impotence and skeletal deformities. Ginseng root (Panax schinseng) is claimed, with little reliable phar￾macological evidence, to alleviate diabetes, cardiovas￾cular, digestive, liver and other diseases. Analyses of different samples from similar ginseng remedies show significant variance in composition. Oriental beliefs in therapeutic foods is attracting North Americans, one-third of whom are said to buy herbal remedies as alternatives to prescription drugs. Americans’ search for a nutritional Elixir vitae has been evident for over half a century. During the 1950s vita￾min supplements were in fashion; during the 1960s pro￾teins and amino acids were in favour; in the 1970s extensive publicity was given to essential fatty acids and cholesterol in relation to cardiovascular disfunctions; during the 1980s dietary fibre was of paramount inter￾est. At present the fashion is with ‘functional foods’ (which beg the question: what are non-functional foods?) and ‘nutraceuticals’, foods believed to possess beneficial pharmacological properties. It is not surpriz￾ing that the Chinese claim to be the originators of nutraceutical concepts. Food and drugs: science and technology A characteristic common to food, drugs and most other basic need industries is that technologies dis￾covered by perceptive empiricism long preceded any scientific understanding of the biochemical properties of the raw materials and processed products. Foods found to be acceptable and satisfying, and medicinals that cured or alleviated particular maladies were discovered by chance, trial and error, and painful experience. The history of food processing, in large part, is a his￾tory of bioengineering, the gradual replacement of human hands and energy first by animals, later by machines. Industrial processes of fractionation and transformation used today were developed hundreds of years ago. What began as labour-intensive artisanal crafts were progressively mechanized. In addition to providing an immense diversity of food products, food industries have progressively reduced the human effort and energy needed in factories, restaurants and homes. Food preservation The basic principles of food preservation: control of (1) active water content, (2) ambient atmosphere, (3) temperature, (4) pH; and (5) thermal inactivation of microbial and biochemical sources of spoilage, were discovered empirically hundreds of years ago. Medi￾terranean, Asian and Amerindian people used sun dry￾ing to preserve milk, meat, fish, fruits and vegetables, into their sun-dried pemmican northern Amerindians added dried berries that provided ascorbic acid. Sliced potatoes were freeze-dried by early Amerindians, ice gradually subliming in the dry air and low atmospheric pressure of the high Andes. Stone age Britons dried grains over open fires to prevent sprouting. Over 4000 years ago, the Chinese preserved fish by osmotic dehydration with salt. Republican Romans reduced water activity in meat and fruits by adding salt or honey. About 5000 years ago, Middle Eastern farmers stored grains in earthenware amphora each hermetically sealed by an impervious goat skin. All stages of insect metamorphosis were asphyxiated by respired CO2. Seneca described how Romans preserved prawns in snow from the Appenines. The frozen food industry developed after Clarence Birdseye, an American, observed how whale, seal and reindeer meat were naturally preserved during the cold Canadian winter. Modern canning, bottling and boil-in-the-bag were anticipated in Republican Rome where chopped spiced meats were sealed and boiled inside the cleaned womb of a sow or the body cavity of a squid. Fermentation and pickling of fruits and vegetables is an ancient practice among Asian and Mediterranean people. The Babylonians preserved their milk by lactic fermenta￾tion. Ethanol was distilled in China over 3000 years ago. Homer described wine as ‘‘A gift from the gods’’. Grain milling—the first continuous process Fractionation of cereal grains by pulverization, siev￾ing and winnowing, and extraction of olive oil by 4 Joseph H. Hulse / Trends in Food Science & Technology 15 (2004) 3–18