1308 Part G Human-Centered and Life-Like Robotics ence fiction play Rossum's Universal Robots(R.U.R.) Part For example,humanoid robots have been developed as general-purpose mechanical workers,as entertain- is centered around the story of artificial people created G156. ers,and as test-beds for theories from neuroscience and in a factory [56.9].This play from 1920 is widely be- experimental psychology [56.1-3]. lieved to have popularized the term robot.Many other works have included explicit representations of hu- 56.1.1 The Human Example manoid robots,such as the robot Maria in Fritz Lang's 1927 film Metropolis [56.10],and the thoughtful por- On a daily basis,humans perform important tasks that trayal of humanoid robotics by Isaac Asimov in works are well beyond the capabilities of current robots.More- such as The Caves of Steel from 1954 [56.11].The long over,humans are generalists with the ability to perform history of humanoid robots in science fiction has influ- a wide variety of distinct tasks.Roboticists would like enced generations of researchers,as well as the general to create robots with comparable versatility and skill. public,and serves as further evidence that people are When automating a task that people perform,it is natu- drawn to the idea of humanoid robots. ral to consider the physical and intellectual mechanisms that enable a person to perform the task.Exactly what to 56.1.3 Understanding Intelligence borrow from the human example is controversial.The Many researchers in the humanoid robotics commu- literal-minded approach of creating humanoid robots nity see humanoid robots as a tool with which to better may not be the best way to achieve some human-like capabilities(see Chap.54,Domestic Robots).For exam- understand humans [56.3,12].Humanoid robots offer an ple,dishwashing machines bear little similarity to the avenue to test understanding through construction(syn- manual dishwashing they replace. thesis),and thereby complement the careful analysis provided by researchers in disciplines such as cognitive 56.1.2 The Pleasing Mirror science. Researchers have sought to better emulate human in- Humans are humanity's favorite subject.A quick look at telligence using humanoid robotics [56.13].Scientists, popular magazines,videos,and books should be enough developmental psychologists,and linguists have found to convince any alien observer that humanity is obsessed strong links between the human body and human cog- with itself.The nature of this obsession is not fully un- nition [56.14].By being embodied in a manner similar to humans,and situated within human environments, derstood,but aspects of it have influenced the field of humanoid robots may be able to exploit similar mech- humanoid robotics. anisms for artificial intelligence (AI).Researchers are Humans are social animals that generally like to ob- serve and interact with one another [56.4].Moreover, also attempting to find methods that will enable robots people are highly attuned to human characteristics,such to develop autonomously in a manner akin to human in- as the sound of human voices and the appearance of fants [56.15].Some of these researchers use humanoid human faces and body motion [56.5-7].Infants show robots that can physically explore the world in a manner preferences for these types of stimuli at a very young age, similar to humans [56.16]. and adults appear to use specialized mental resources 56.1.4 Interfacing with the Human World when interpreting these stimuli.By mimicking human characteristics,humanoid robots can engage these same Environments built for humans have been designed to ac- preferences and mental resources. commodate human form and behavior [56.17,18].Many Humanity's narcissism has been reflected in media important everyday objects fit in a person's hand and are as diverse as cave paintings,sculpture,mechanical toys,light enough to be transported conveniently by a per- photographs,and computer animation.Artists have con-son.Human tools match human dexterity.Doors tend sistently attempted to portray people with the latest tools to be a convenient size for people to walk through.Ta- at their disposal.Robotics serves as a powerful new bles and desks are at a height that is well matched to medium that enables the creation of artifacts that oper- the human body and senses.Humanoid robots can po- ate within the real world and exhibit both human form tentially take advantage of these same accommodations, and behavior [56.8]. thereby simplifying tasks and avoiding the need to al- Popular works of fiction have frequently included ter the environment for the robot [56.19].For example, influential portrayals of humanoid robots and manmade humanoid robots and people could potentially collabo- humanoid creatures.For example,Karel Capek's sci- rate with one another in the same space using the same1308 Part G Human-Centered and Life-Like Robotics For example, humanoid robots have been developed as general-purpose mechanical workers, as entertain￾ers, and as test-beds for theories from neuroscience and experimental psychology [56.1–3]. 56.1.1 The Human Example On a daily basis, humans perform important tasks that are well beyond the capabilities of current robots. More￾over, humans are generalists with the ability to perform a wide variety of distinct tasks. Roboticists would like to create robots with comparable versatility and skill. When automating a task that people perform, it is natu￾ral to consider the physical and intellectual mechanisms that enable a person to perform the task. Exactly what to borrow from the human example is controversial. The literal-minded approach of creating humanoid robots may not be the best way to achieve some human-like capabilities (see Chap. 54, Domestic Robots). For exam￾ple, dishwashing machines bear little similarity to the manual dishwashing they replace. 56.1.2 The Pleasing Mirror Humans are humanity’s favorite subject. A quick look at popular magazines, videos, and books should be enough to convince any alien observer that humanity is obsessed with itself. The nature of this obsession is not fully un￾derstood, but aspects of it have influenced the field of humanoid robotics. Humans are social animals that generally like to ob￾serve and interact with one another [56.4]. Moreover, people are highly attuned to human characteristics, such as the sound of human voices and the appearance of human faces and body motion [56.5–7]. Infants show preferences for these types of stimuli at a very young age, and adults appear to use specialized mental resources when interpreting these stimuli. By mimicking human characteristics, humanoid robots can engage these same preferences and mental resources. Humanity’s narcissism has been reflected in media as diverse as cave paintings, sculpture, mechanical toys, photographs, and computer animation. Artists have con￾sistently attempted to portray people with the latest tools at their disposal. Robotics serves as a powerful new medium that enables the creation of artifacts that oper￾ate within the real world and exhibit both human form and behavior [56.8]. Popular works of fiction have frequently included influential portrayals of humanoid robots and manmade humanoid creatures. For example, Karel Capek’s sci- ˘ ence fiction play Rossum’s Universal Robots (R.U.R.) is centered around the story of artificial people created in a factory [56.9]. This play from 1920 is widely be￾lieved to have popularized the term robot. Many other works have included explicit representations of hu￾manoid robots, such as the robot Maria in Fritz Lang’s 1927 film Metropolis [56.10], and the thoughtful por￾trayal of humanoid robotics by Isaac Asimov in works such as The Caves of Steel from 1954 [56.11]. The long history of humanoid robots in science fiction has influ￾enced generations of researchers, as well as the general public, and serves as further evidence that people are drawn to the idea of humanoid robots. 56.1.3 Understanding Intelligence Many researchers in the humanoid robotics commu￾nity see humanoid robots as a tool with which to better understand humans [56.3,12]. Humanoid robots offer an avenue to test understanding through construction (syn￾thesis), and thereby complement the careful analysis provided by researchers in disciplines such as cognitive science. Researchers have sought to better emulate human in￾telligence using humanoid robotics [56.13]. Scientists, developmental psychologists, and linguists have found strong links between the human body and human cog￾nition [56.14]. By being embodied in a manner similar to humans, and situated within human environments, humanoid robots may be able to exploit similar mech￾anisms for artificial intelligence (AI). Researchers are also attempting to find methods that will enable robots to develop autonomously in a manner akin to human in￾fants [56.15]. Some of these researchers use humanoid robots that can physically explore the world in a manner similar to humans [56.16]. 56.1.4 Interfacing with the Human World Environments built for humans have been designed to ac￾commodate human form and behavior [56.17,18]. Many important everyday objects fit in a person’s hand and are light enough to be transported conveniently by a per￾son. Human tools match human dexterity. Doors tend to be a convenient size for people to walk through. Ta￾bles and desks are at a height that is well matched to the human body and senses. Humanoid robots can po￾tentially take advantage of these same accommodations, thereby simplifying tasks and avoiding the need to al￾ter the environment for the robot [56.19]. For example, humanoid robots and people could potentially collabo￾rate with one another in the same space using the same Part G 56.1