MUSLIM REVOLTS 2I5 Sufism.This last factor,together with the sturdiness that resulted from horseback riding and the practice of related martial skills,made the Tungans(the Chinese Muslims of Shensi and Kansu,including those who migrated to Sinkiang)among the most stubborn rebels the Ch'ing ever encountered. Like the Yunnan Muslims,the Tungans were Chinese-speaking.Their original Central Asian blood had been diluted by the custom of allowing their men to marry non-Muslim women and the practice of expanding the Islamic community by adopting Han Chinese children.More so than in Yunnan,however,contacts with Central Asia constantly reinforced their religious faith,which was guarded by the akhunds in each of the auto- nomous mosque-centred communities.Sufi tarikats such as the Nagsh- bandiyya and Qadiriyya were introduced into North-West China from Central Asia.Claiming their special links to God,the shaykhs of these tarikats sometimes performed 'wonders'(kiramr)like curing illnesses, restoring fertility to people,and foretelling events.Once accepted by the people as a saint(w),the religious leader's authority became indisputable. Following his death,the tomb of such a saint would become a holy place. In the 187os,the British traveller,H.W.Bellew,visited the tomb near Kashgar of the saintly founder of the Afaqiyya,a branch of the Nagsh- bandiyya.After the Afaqi khojas were driven out of Sinkiang by the Ch'ing forces in the mid-eighteenth century,the tornb of the Afaqi founder continued to attract numerous pilgrims.3s From their haven in Kokand, the Afaqi khojas for three generations fomented unrest and waged holy wars to recover Altishahr(see volume ro,chapters 2 and 8).One of them was to do so again in the 186os. Meanwhile a Sufi practice known as the dhier-ijabri(vocal recollection) was introduced among the Naqshbandiyya of Kansu by Ma Ming-hsin,an eighteenth-century Chinese Muslim who had travelled to Bukhara and to the Arabian peninsula.Ma was converted to the vocal spiritual exercise, which was supposed to dispel all thoughts from the mind except the remembrance of God.After returning to his native Kansu,he began preaching in 1761-2 among the Salar Turks in Hsun-hua,in the extreme east of present-day Tsinghai,not far from the Kansu capital of Lanchow. His followers were identified by a phrase they used,Che-bo lei-yeb,almost certainly the transliteration of Jahriyya,the vocal'tarikat.Within two decades,this New Teaching(Hsin-cbiao)(in dispute with the Old Teaching of earlier Chinese Naqshbandiyya,which was for 'silent recollection'of 3s Sce Saguchi Toru,Jibacbi-jikyireiki Higarbi Torukimutan thakairbi kenkyi(A study of the social history of Eastern Turkestan in the 18th and I9th centuries),534-8.Henry Walter Bellew,Katbmir and Katbgar:a narrative of tbe journey of the embasty to Kasbgar in 1873-1874, 32【-7. Cambridge Histories Online O Cambridge University Press,2008MUSLIM REVOLTS 215 Sufism. This last factor, together with the sturdiness that resulted from horseback riding and the practice of related martial skills, made the Tungans (the Chinese Muslims of Shensi and Kansu, including those who migrated to Sinkiang) among the most stubborn rebels the Ch'ing ever encountered. Like the Yunnan Muslims, the Tungans were Chinese-speaking. Their original Central Asian blood had been diluted by the custom of allowing their men to marry non-Muslim women and the practice of expanding the Islamic community by adopting Han Chinese children. More so than in Yunnan, however, contacts with Central Asia constantly reinforced their religious faith, which was guarded by the akhunds in each of the auto￾nomous mosque-centred communities. Sufi tarikats such as the Naqsh￾bandiyya and Qadiriyya were introduced into North-West China from Central Asia. Claiming their special links to God, the shaykhs of these tarikats sometimes performed 'wonders' {kirdmaf) like curing illnesses, restoring fertility to people, and foretelling events. Once accepted by the people as a saint (wali), the religious leader's authority became indisputable. Following his death, the tomb of such a saint would become a holy place. In the 1870s, the British traveller, H. W. Bellew, visited the tomb near Kashgar of the saintly founder of the Afaqiyya, a branch of the Naqsh￾bandiyya. After the Afaqi khojas were driven out or Sinkiang by the Ch'ing forces in the mid-eighteenth century, the tomb of the Afaqi founder continued to attract numerous pilgrims.35 From their haven in Kokand, the Afaqi khojas for three generations fomented unrest and waged holy wars to recover Altishahr (see volume 10, chapters 2 and 8). One of them was to do so again in the 1860s. Meanwhile a Sufi practice known as the dhikr-ijahri (vocal recollection) was introduced among the Naqshbandiyya of Kansu by Ma Ming-hsin, an eighteenth-century Chinese Muslim who had travelled to Bukhara and to the Arabian peninsula. Ma was converted to the vocal spiritual exercise, which was supposed to dispel all thoughts from the mind except the remembrance of God. After returning to his native Kansu, he began preaching in 1761—2 among the Salar Turks in Hsun-hua, in the extreme east of present-day Tsinghai, not far from the Kansu capital of Lanchow. His followers were identified by a phrase they used, Che-ho lei-yeh, almost certainly the transliteration of Jahriyya, the 'vocal' tarikat. Within two decades, this New Teaching (Hsin-cbiao) (in dispute with the Old Teaching of earlier Chinese Naqshbandiyya, which was for 'silent recollection' of » See Saguchi Tom, Jubacbi-jUkyuseiki Higasbi Torukimtan ibakaiibi kcnkyii (A study of the social history of Eastern Turkestan in the 18th and 19th centuries), 534-8. Henry Walter Bellew, Kashmir and Kasbgar: a narrative of the journey of the embassy to Kashgar in ig/j-if/4, 321-7. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008