Tradition and Modernity 1061 freedom,and equality falling into the former coexistence and mixing of the modern and category and terms such as authority,patriarchy, traditional in family attitudes and behaviors. familism.and dependence falling into the latter Thornton and Young-DeMarco (2001)found category.In regard to family ideation and behav- that over the past 40 years in the United States iors,arranged marriage,parental control,male there has been a continued trend toward indi- domination,and extended family structures are vidual freedom,gender equality,and tolerance regarded as traditional,whereas love marriage, of diverse family forms.However,marriage individual autonomy,women's independence remains a strongly gendered,traditional insti- and personal development.and nuclear family tution,in which many still believe in the structure are regarded as modern (Allendorf, male-breadwinner and female-homemaker 2013;Thornton,2013).Likewise,the family roles.As the authors suggested,even in the mode of organization in which economic pro- supposedly most modern society of the United duction,education,and health care all occur States,the majority of Americans continue within the family is regarded as traditional, to commit to or idealize these traditional whereas the outsourcing of activities to nonfam- institutions. ily institutions is regarded as modern(Thornton More evidence of intermixed family forms, Fricke,1987;Thornton Lin,1994). behaviors,and values is found in transitional As Thornton(2013)noted,.“modern'”and societies that blur the binary distinction between "traditional"societies are all too often perceived the traditional and the modern.O.Cohen and to be on opposite ends of a linear developmental Savaya's (2003)study of Palestinian divorce, spectrum.Underlying this seemingly progres- for example,described individuals selecting sive continuum are assumptions that assess different elements of modern and traditional non-Western societies according to the values values when making their decisions.Likewise, and criteria of Western societies and locate the in Nepal,Ji (2013)found that some women are former at some earlier,presumably more prim- forging a“third way”that mediates between itive stage,presumably waiting to catch up with student and family roles.In Western modern the latter.This perspective is similarly used to societies,individuals generally either skip explain family changes in non-Western societies. school to enter marriage early,or they postpone Although Thornton argued that the ideology marriage until school completion(Blossfeld of developmental idealism does affect family Huinink,1991;Thornton,Axinn,Teachman, changes in the world,he also emphasized the 1995),although others show this transition can clashes,resistances,modifications,and forms be highly“dense'”and more complicated than of adaptation that occur when the traditional previously understood (Furstenberg.Rumbaut. meets the modern.Inglehart and Baker's(2000) Settersten,2005;Rindfuss,1991).Ji argued study of 65 societies and 75%of the world's that living with an extended family that is will- population showed that cultural changes during ing to help with household chores and child care the process of modernization can and do take is a key contextual factor that can help women's nonlinear paths.As societies modernize,their efforts to combine the modern student role and values may well become more secular,rational, traditional mother and wife role. and tolerant,yet elements of their religious and Allendorf (2013)found that a hybrid of the cultural heritage may also remain remarkably traditional arranged marriage and the modern resilient and even resurgent.Therefore,contrary love marriage is now perceived as the ideal to the narrow,linear claims of modernization marriage in one Indian village,as individuals theory that traditional societies would eventually are increasingly influenced by modern ideations move toward or converge with modern societies, blended with local cultural norms.Finally, traditional and modern components may exist in their study of consanguineous marriage in simultaneously in the same society in the long Qatar,Harkness and Khaled (2014)found that run,constituting a mosaic context. individuals fuse modernity and convention by describing a traditional marriage form using the Family Research Blending Modern language of romantic love-a discursive strategy the authors dubbed modern traditionalism. and Traditional Elements In short,the modern-traditional mosaic Much empirical research in both Western manifests differently in different societies. and non-Western settings has reported the Accordingly,individuals embedded in thisTradition and Modernity 1061 freedom, and equality falling into the former category and terms such as authority, patriarchy, familism, and dependence falling into the latter category. In regard to family ideation and behav￾iors, arranged marriage, parental control, male domination, and extended family structures are regarded as traditional, whereas love marriage, individual autonomy, women’s independence and personal development, and nuclear family structure are regarded as modern (Allendorf, 2013; Thornton, 2013). Likewise, the family mode of organization in which economic pro￾duction, education, and health care all occur within the family is regarded as traditional, whereas the outsourcing of activities to nonfam￾ily institutions is regarded as modern (Thornton & Fricke, 1987; Thornton & Lin, 1994). As Thornton (2013) noted, “modern” and “traditional” societies are all too often perceived to be on opposite ends of a linear developmental spectrum. Underlying this seemingly progres￾sive continuum are assumptions that assess non-Western societies according to the values and criteria of Western societies and locate the former at some earlier, presumably more prim￾itive stage, presumably waiting to catch up with the latter. This perspective is similarly used to explain family changes in non-Western societies. Although Thornton argued that the ideology of developmental idealism does affect family changes in the world, he also emphasized the clashes, resistances, modifications, and forms of adaptation that occur when the traditional meets the modern. Inglehart and Baker’s (2000) study of 65 societies and 75% of the world’s population showed that cultural changes during the process of modernization can and do take nonlinear paths. As societies modernize, their values may well become more secular, rational, and tolerant, yet elements of their religious and cultural heritage may also remain remarkably resilient and even resurgent. Therefore, contrary to the narrow, linear claims of modernization theory that traditional societies would eventually move toward or converge with modern societies, traditional and modern components may exist simultaneously in the same society in the long run, constituting a mosaic context. Family Research Blending Modern and Traditional Elements Much empirical research in both Western and non-Western settings has reported the coexistence and mixing of the modern and traditional in family attitudes and behaviors. Thornton and Young-DeMarco (2001) found that over the past 40 years in the United States there has been a continued trend toward indi￾vidual freedom, gender equality, and tolerance of diverse family forms. However, marriage remains a strongly gendered, traditional insti￾tution, in which many still believe in the male-breadwinner and female-homemaker roles. As the authors suggested, even in the supposedly most modern society of the United States, the majority of Americans continue to commit to or idealize these traditional institutions. More evidence of intermixed family forms, behaviors, and values is found in transitional societies that blur the binary distinction between the traditional and the modern. O. Cohen and Savaya’s (2003) study of Palestinian divorce, for example, described individuals selecting different elements of modern and traditional values when making their decisions. Likewise, in Nepal, Ji (2013) found that some women are forging a “third way” that mediates between student and family roles. In Western modern societies, individuals generally either skip school to enter marriage early, or they postpone marriage until school completion (Blossfeld & Huinink, 1991; Thornton, Axinn, & Teachman, 1995), although others show this transition can be highly “dense” and more complicated than previously understood (Furstenberg, Rumbaut, & Settersten, 2005; Rindfuss, 1991). Ji argued that living with an extended family that is will￾ing to help with household chores and child care is a key contextual factor that can help women’s efforts to combine the modern student role and traditional mother and wife role. Allendorf (2013) found that a hybrid of the traditional arranged marriage and the modern love marriage is now perceived as the ideal marriage in one Indian village, as individuals are increasingly influenced by modern ideations blended with local cultural norms. Finally, in their study of consanguineous marriage in Qatar, Harkness and Khaled (2014) found that individuals fuse modernity and convention by describing a traditional marriage form using the language of romantic love—a discursive strategy the authors dubbed modern traditionalism. In short, the modern–traditional mosaic manifests differently in different societies. Accordingly, individuals embedded in this