xi H.Carotenoids in Membranes .205 1.Membrane structure 205 2.Localization and orientation of carotenoids.......................... 206 3.Effects of carotenoids on membrane structure and properties 207 4.Reinforcement of bacterial membranes.......... 208 5.Protection of membranes against oxidizing free radicals 209 6.Membrane-associated processes 209 7.Zeaxanthin in thylakoid membranes ..................................... 209 I.Fertility and Reproduction 209 J.Miscellaneous Proposed Functions ..... 210 K.Breakdown Products and Metabolites 210 L.Carotenoids in Human Health and Nutrition 211 References 211 Chapter 11:Signal Functions of Carotenoid Colouration Jonathan D.Blount and Kevin J.MeGraw A Introduction 213 1.Biological signals and their reliability 213 2.Carotenoids as signals... 214 B.Carotenoid Signals in Plants 214 I Frits and flowers 214 2.Leaves 216 C.Carotenoid Signals in Animals 217 1.Signalling to other species(heterospecifics) 217 a)Species recognition 217 b)Warning (aposematic)colouration and mimicry 218 c)Crypsis 219 2.Signalling to members of the same species (conspecifics)............... 221 a)）Sexual signalling 221 b)Social status signalling............................................... 223 c)Parent-offspring signalling 223 d)Other conspecific signal functions 224 D.Information Content of Carotenoid Signals 224 1.Nutritional state 224 2 Parasite load 226 3.Immune defence 227 4.Antioxidant activity 。。 227xiii H. Carotenoids in Membranes ………………………………………………... 205 1. Membrane structure …………………………………………………….. 205 2. Localization and orientation of carotenoids …………………………….. 206 3. Effects of carotenoids on membrane structure and properties ………….. 207 4. Reinforcement of bacterial membranes ………………………………… 208 5. Protection of membranes against oxidizing free radicals ………………. 209 6. Membrane-associated processes ………………………………………... 209 7. Zeaxanthin in thylakoid membranes ……………………………………. 209 I. Fertility and Reproduction …………………………………………………. 209 J. Miscellaneous Proposed Functions ………………………………………… 210 K. Breakdown Products and Metabolites ……………………………………. 210 L. Carotenoids in Human Health and Nutrition …………………………….. 211 References ……………………………………………………………………… 211 Chapter 11: Signal Functions of Carotenoid Colouration Jonathan D. Blount and Kevin J. McGraw A. Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 213 1. Biological signals and their reliability ………………………………….. 213 2. Carotenoids as signals ………………………………………………….. 214 B. Carotenoid Signals in Plants ………………………………………………. 214 1. Fruits and flowers ………………………………………………………. 214 2. Leaves .………………………………………………………………….. 216 C. Carotenoid Signals in Animals …………………………………………….. 217 1. Signalling to other species (heterospecifics) ……………………………. 217 a) Species recognition …………………………………………………. 217 b) Warning (aposematic) colouration and mimicry …………………… 218 c) Crypsis ……………………………………………………………… 219 2. Signalling to members of the same species (conspecifics) …………….. 221 a) Sexual signalling ……………………………………………………. 221 b) Social status signalling …………………………………………….. 223 c) Parent - offspring signalling ………………………………………… 223 d) Other conspecific signal functions …………………………………. 224 D. Information Content of Carotenoid Signals ……………………………… 224 1. Nutritional state …………………………………………………………. 224 2. Parasite load …………………………………………………………….. 226 3. Immune defence ………………………………………………………… 227 4. Antioxidant activity …………………………………………………….. 227