336 Chapter9 Attitudes,Emotions,andWork hypothesized effect of reducing productivity.The researchers discovered that because of the experiment,the workers received considerably more attention from their supervisors and managers than they had previously.This increased attention was viewed positively by the workers and may explain why attitudes toward supervision improved.The improved atti. tudes of workers toward supervisors as a result of the increased attention appeared,in tum. to be responsible for the increase in productivity.This led to the introduction of a new term Hawthome effect into the literature of social and industrial psychology:the Hawthorne effect,meaning a A chang单n behavier道 change in behavior or attitudes that was the simple result of increased attention. 4td相that was the smpl地 At the time this research was reported,the general concusion drawn by I-0 psychologists result of inceased attention was that morale and production seemed to be closely linked.As we will see later in the chapter,this condlusion was wrong Nevertheless,both researchers and managers were quick to embrace this conclusion,and it has been hard to dispel.The Hawthome study results have been analyzed and reanalyzed,interpreted and reinterpreted,and many different theories have been proposed to account for the surprising results(Landsberger,1958).But one thing is beyond dispute Following dosely on the heels of Mayo's early research on the effect of factory work on emotions and the discovery of individual differences in satisfaction by Hoppock.the Hawthorne studies galvanized social scientists and gave impetus to the ttitudes Relativ时stable study of worker attitudes and the new construct of job satisfaction. fengs rbeliefs that are The years between 1935 and 1955 were very active for job satisfaction research,largely drected tward speafic because satisfaction was thought to be closely linked to two outcomes very important to w0气9所，次再 复ahw动布 industry:the prevention of labor unrest in the form of strikes,and productivity.The idea was that if an employer could keep worker morale high,the company would be strike-free and profitable.Most attempts to measure satisfaction asked workers about their most important needs and the extent to which those needs were being met.It was believed that the greater the extent to which important needs were met,the greater would be worker satisfaction (Schaffer,1953).In addition,social psychology was emerging during this period as a specialty within psychology.Social psychologists became very interested in atti- tudes of all sorts,and attitudes toward work represented a good integration of the theories of social psychologists with the interests of industrial psychologists. In the late 1950s,two reviews of the research conducted to that point came to very differ- ent condusions.Brayfield and Crockett(1955)concluded that there was little evidence of any substantial connection between satisfaction and performance.In contrast,Herzberg. Mausner,Peterson.and Capwell (1957)concluded that there was a connection between satisfaction and at least some work behaviors,particularly absenteeism and turnover.This led to the introduction ofone of the first modern theories of job satisfaction,the two-factor theory (Herzberg,Mausner,Snyderman,1959).Recall from Chapter 8 that,according to Herzberg.job satisfaction was the result of intrinsic job characteristics (eg.interesting work.challenge),whereas job dissatisfaction was the result of extrinsic characteristics(e.g.. pay.working conditions).Herzberg proposed that extrinsic factors satisfied "hyglene" needs and intrinsic factors satisfied "motivator"needs.This theory resulted in a flurry of activity.but eventually the theory was rejected on both logical and empirical grounds (Ewen.Smith.Hulin,Locke,1966:King.1970). Antecedents and Consequences of Job Satisfaction lob satisfaction research between 1935 and 1990 has been characterized as atheoretical (Brief&Weiss,2002).This criticism has been leveled in part because researchers depended on statistical analyses as a replacement for theory.They looked for correlations between reports of job satisfaction and observable aspects of work The best example is pay.Studies would examine the relationships among desired levels of pay,observed levels of pay,and reported job satisfaction(Sweeney McFarlin,2005:Williams,McDaniel,Nguyen,2006)