1106 American Anthropologist Vol 104, No 4. December 2002 and socioeconomic hierarchies. But brotherless daughters aartiteular Nicole s ons aale. sue ong at that pres have the power to make the best use of their glass floor Nonini,Ichiro Numizaki,and Jesook Shu-Min Huang, Don am also grateful to Re- and push the limits of their glass ceiling, thanks to the pa- gina ahr me tarqui Barak andu sai au andel spang ac De denied. Daughters empowered by the support of parents Graeme Lang, Tianshu Pan, Sonja Plesset, Jinbao Qian, Erica James with no sons to favor are able to defy detrimental norms Razafimbahiny, Tam Tai, James L. Watson, and Rubie Watson, for while strategically using ones that give them advantages am grateful to Fran Mascia-Lees, Susan H. Lees, TaraJ. Pearson, and in the educational system and the job and marriage mar- an anonymous reviewer for the American Anthropologist for their kets. Parents of singletons only complain about their chil dren's gender when they believe their children are con- cle was funded by a Beinecke Brothers Memorial Fellowship, an Andrew w. Mellon Grant for Predissertation Research and a na. forming to disadvantageous gender norms, not when their tional Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship children are conforming to advantageous ones. Complaints 1. The degree to which any given gender norm is detrimental or like those of Ding Na's father can thus be seen as discursive helpful depends on the characteristics of the individual: The norm strategies adopted on specific occasions to exhort a beloved associating women with gentleness, for instance, might help a vo child to challenge detrimental gender norms. cational high school graduate win a secretarial iots but prevent a unemployment that plagues her male espite his moment of epiphany on learning his female college graduate from becoming a manager(since managers daughters excellent college entrance exam scores, Ding are not supposed to be gentle Na's father continues to remind her that he always wanted 2. This survey was administered in 1999 to most of the students in grades 8-9 at the jur high school, grades 10-ll at the voca a son whenever he finds fault with her. He continues to tional high school, and grades 10-12 at the college prep high fret about her future, demanding that she succeed in col chool,753 were from the vocational high school, and 782 were lege and worrying that she will not be able to find a good from the college prep high school. The junior high school and col b afterward, especially since she has chosen to major in lege prep high school had balanced gender ratios, while the voca omputer programming, a subject considered difficult for cialized in female-d women. Yet Ding Na takes her fathers commentaries in ted majors such as business and tourism gs down by gender or school only whe stride. "He criticizes me only because he wants to push me dealing with survey responses that vary significantly by gender or to do better, "she told me. Indeed, I noticed that, though school he criticized her in her presence, he also boasted about her 3. On my survey, 38 percent of female respondents (N in her absence and 29 percent of male respondents(N=852)indicated th had at least one parent who had not lived in the countryside While Ding Na was away at college, I had dinner with her parents and paternal uncle, whose singleton daughter dents indicated that both parents had lived in the countryside. was still in high school. Ding Na's father's brother talked 4. Percent of relatives who never did paid work, according to sur- bout his fear that his own daughter would not succeed in vey respondents: paternal grandmother (N= 1, 716)36 percent maternal grandmother(N= 1, 493)34 percent, paternal grandfa- the science major she had chosen, since "science is harder ther(N= 1, 651)0 percent, maternal gra er(N=1,748)0per for girls. "Ding Na's father, however, reassured him by cent, mother(N= 1,995)0 percent, father(N= 1,964)0 percent quoting a famous line from "The Red Detachment of Wo- 5. Percent of relatives who were ever cadres, managers, or white- men"(Hongse Niangzijun), a revolutionary model opera about Communist women soldiers. "In ancient times there 15 percent, paternal grandfather(N=1, 863)42 percent, maternal was Hua Mulan: in modern times there is the red detach father(N= 1, 984)48 percent. ment of Women. "He then raised his glass of beer in a toast 6. The Mulan ballad is said to have originated in the fifth or sixth and added, "in the future it will be up to our daughters. when it was included in the prestigious Song dynasty(960-1279 C E )anthology Yuefu(Luo Genze 1996). The legend of Mulan has VANESSA L. FoNG Postdoctoral Fellow, Population Studies inspired many novels, plays, and poems, and even a Disney ani- Center, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, 48104 ated movie. Mulan Girls' High School is the name of an expe sive private girls schools established in Dalian during the 1990s 7. Average percentile ranks of singleton respondents by gender NOTES school: girls grades 8-9(N=361), 57th percentile; boys grade students, parents, and tea shared their lives with mty 325), 42nd percentile; girls in college prep hig The earliest version of this presented at the City Univer- chool, grades 10-12(N= 201), 44th percentile. Percentile March 13. 2000. I thank audience members are based comparisons of the January 2000 final exam scores of pho commented on my presentation, especially Graeme Lang all students in each grade level. The best possible percentile rank is read and commented on a later version Later versio 100, and the worst possible is 1 this article won honorable mentions for the 2001 Elsie Clews par. 8. Survey Question: "Who has a harder time getting jobs-male Society and the 2001 Sylvia Forman Graduate Student Paper Prize percent respo=1, 181): 33 percent responded"females, "26 tales, "41 percent responded"no difference warded by the Association for Feminist Anthropology. Another version of this article was presented at a joint conference of the sponded"males, "32 percent responded"no difference. American Ethnological Society, the Canadian Anthropology Soci- 9. Although important in young people's choice of marriage part. y, and the Society for Cultural Anthropology, held at McGill Uni- ners in 1990s urban China, romantic love is still sometimes ou versity, Montreal, Canada, May 3-6, 2001.I weighed by socioeconomic factors.and socioeconomic hierarchies. But brotherless daughters have the power to make the best use of their glass floor and push the limits of their glass ceiling, thanks to the pa￾rental support that their mothers and grandmothers were denied. Daughters empowered by the support of parents with no sons to favor are able to defy detrimental norms while strategically using ones that give them advantages in the educational system and the job and marriage mar￾kets. Parents of singletons only complain about their chil￾dren’s gender when they believe their children are con￾forming to disadvantageous gender norms, not when their children are conforming to advantageous ones. Complaints like those of Ding Na’s father can thus be seen as discursive strategies adopted on specific occasions to exhort a beloved child to challenge detrimental gender norms. Despite his moment of epiphany on learning his daughter’s excellent college entrance exam scores, Ding Na’s father continues to remind her that he always wanted a son whenever he finds fault with her. He continues to fret about her future, demanding that she succeed in col￾lege and worrying that she will not be able to find a good job afterward, especially since she has chosen to major in computer programming, a subject considered difficult for women. Yet Ding Na takes her father’s commentaries in stride. “He criticizes me only because he wants to push me to do better,” she told me. Indeed, I noticed that, though he criticized her in her presence, he also boasted about her in her absence. While Ding Na was away at college, I had dinner with her parents and paternal uncle, whose singleton daughter was still in high school. Ding Na’s father’s brother talked about his fear that his own daughter would not succeed in the science major she had chosen, since “science is harder for girls.” Ding Na’s father, however, reassured him by quoting a famous line from “The Red Detachment of Wo￾men” (Hongse Niangzijun), a revolutionary model opera about Communist women soldiers: “In ancient times there was Hua Mulan; in modern times there is the Red Detach￾ment of Women.” He then raised his glass of beer in a toast and added, “in the future it will be up to our daughters.” VANESSA L. FONG Postdoctoral Fellow, Population Studies Center, University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, 48104 NOTES Acknowledgments. I am most deeply indebted to the Dalian City students, parents, and teachers who shared their lives with me. The earliest version of this article was presented at the City Univer￾sity of Hong Kong on March 13, 2000. I thank audience members who commented on my presentation, especially Graeme Lang, who also read and commented on a later version. Later versions of this article won honorable mentions for the 2001 Elsie Clews Par￾sons Student Paper Prize awarded by the American Ethnological Society and the 2001 Sylvia Forman Graduate Student Paper Prize awarded by the Association for Feminist Anthropology. Another version of this article was presented at a joint conference of the American Ethnological Society, the Canadian Anthropology Soci￾ety, and the Society for Cultural Anthropology, held at McGill Uni￾versity, Montreal, Canada, May 3–6, 2001. I thank audience members and fellow panelists who gave me suggestions at that presentation, particularly Nicole Constable, Suhong Chae, Shu-Min Huang, Don Nonini, Ichiro Numizaki, and Jesook Song. I am also grateful to Re￾gina Abrami, Narquis Barak, Manduhai Buyandel, Shanghan Du Deborah Gewertz, Miriam Goheen, Susan Greenhalgh, Michael Herzfeld, Xiaojiang Hu, William Jankowiak, Arthur Kleinman, Graeme Lang, Tianshu Pan, Sonja Plesset, Jinbao Qian, Erica James Razafimbahiny, Tam Tai, James L. Watson, and Rubie Watson, for the suggestions they gave me about various drafts of this article. I am grateful to Fran Mascia-Lees, Susan H. Lees, Tara J. Pearson, and an anonymous reviewer for the American Anthropologist for their careful readings and detailed suggestions. The research for this arti￾cle was funded by a Beinecke Brothers Memorial Fellowship, an Andrew W. Mellon Grant for Predissertation Research, and a Na￾tional Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. 1. The degree to which any given gender norm is detrimental or helpful depends on the characteristics of the individual: The norm associating women with gentleness, for instance, might help a vo￾cational high school graduate win a secretarial job and avoid the unemployment that plagues her male counterparts but prevent a female college graduate from becoming a manager (since managers are not supposed to be gentle). 2. This survey was administered in 1999 to most of the students in grades 8–9 at the junior high school, grades 10–11 at the voca￾tional high school, and grades 10–12 at the college prep high school. Of the 2,273 respondents, 738 were from the junior high school, 753 were from the vocational high school, and 782 were from the college prep high school. The junior high school and col￾lege prep high school had balanced gender ratios, while the voca￾tional high school was 71 percent (N = 752) female because it spe￾cialized in female-dominated majors such as business and tourism. I break my statistical findings down by gender or school only when dealing with survey responses that vary significantly by gender or school. 3. On my survey, 38 percent of female respondents (N = 1,254) and 29 percent of male respondents (N = 852) indicated that they had at least one parent who had not lived in the countryside, while 62 percent of female respondents and 71 percent of male respon￾dents indicated that both parents had lived in the countryside. 4. Percent of relatives who never did paid work, according to sur￾vey respondents: paternal grandmother (N = 1,716) 36 percent, maternal grandmother (N = 1,493) 34 percent, paternal grandfa￾ther (N = 1,651) 0 percent, maternal grandfather (N = 1,748) 0 per￾cent, mother (N = 1,995) 0 percent, father (N = 1,964) 0 percent. 5. Percent of relatives who were ever cadres, managers, or white￾collar workers, according to survey respondents: paternal grand￾mother (N = 1,871) 14 percent, maternal grandmother (N = 1,875) 15 percent, paternal grandfather (N = 1,863) 42 percent, maternal grandfather (N = 1,871) 45 percent, mother (N = 2,009) 38 percent, father (N = 1,984) 48 percent. 6. The Mulan ballad is said to have originated in the fifth or sixth century C.E., and it became part of the official Chinese canon when it was included in the prestigious Song dynasty (960–1279 C.E.) anthology Yuefu (Luo Genze 1996). The legend of Mulan has inspired many novels, plays, and poems, and even a Disney ani￾mated movie. Mulan Girls’ High School is the name of an expen￾sive private girls’ schools established in Dalian during the 1990s. 7. Average percentile ranks of singleton respondents by gender and school: girls grades 8–9 (N = 361), 57th percentile; boys grades 8–9 (N = 325), 42nd percentile; girls in college prep high school, grades 10–12 (N = 262), 54th percentile; boys in college prep high school, grades 10–12 (N = 201), 44th percentile. Percentile ranks are based on comparisons of the January 2000 final exam scores of all students in each grade level. The best possible percentile rank is 100, and the worst possible is 1. 8. Survey Question: “Who has a harder time getting jobs—males or females?” Girls (N = 1,181): 33 percent responded “females,” 26 percent responded “males,” 41 percent responded “no difference.” Boys (N = 788): 16 percent responded “females,” 53 percent re￾sponded “males,” 32 percent responded “no difference.” 9. Although important in young people’s choice of marriage part￾ners in 1990s urban China, romantic love is still sometimes out￾weighed by socioeconomic factors. 1106 American Anthropologist • Vol. 104, No. 4 • December 2002