viii Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 95 Evaluating Properties Using 3.1 Getting Started 96 the ldeal Gas Model 132 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 96 3.12 Introducing the ldeal Gas 3.1.2 Fixing the State 96 Model 132 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 132 Evaluating Properties: General Considerations 97 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 135 3.2 p-y-T Relation 97 3.13 Internal Energy,Enthalpy,and Specific 3.2.1 -y-T Surface 98 Heats of Ideal Gases 135 3.2.2 Projections of the -y-T Surface 100 3.13.1△u,△h,Cy and Cp Relations135 3.3 Studying Phase Change 101 3-13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 137 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Properties 104 Gas Tables,Constant Specific Heats,and 3.5 Evaluating Pressure,Specific Volume, Software 138 and Temperature 105 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 138 3-5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 105 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 140 3-5.2 Saturation Tables 107 3.14-3 Using Computer Software 142 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 146 Enthalpy 111 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 148 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 111 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 111 4 Control Volume Analysis 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Using Energy 169 Values 113 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Volume 170 Software 113 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Balance 170 Property Tables and Software 115 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 116 Rate 171 3.8.2 Using Software 119 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 172 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cy 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass and cp 122 Rate Balance 172 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Balance 173 Solids 123 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Balance 173 Saturated Liquid Data 123 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 124 Balance 174 3.11 Generalized Compressibility 4-3.1 Steady-State Application 174 Chart 126 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant,R 127 Application 175 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor,Z 127 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Control Volume 178 Z Chart 128 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a 3.11.4 Equations of State 131 Control Volume 178viii Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 95 3.1 Getting Started 96 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 96 3.1.2 Fixing the State 96 Evaluating Properties: General Considerations 97 3.2 p–y–T Relation 97 3.2.1 –y–T Surface 98 3.2.2 Projections of the –y–T Surface 100 3.3 Studying Phase Change 101 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 104 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specifi c Volume, and Temperature 105 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 105 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 107 3.6 Evaluating Specifi c Internal Energy and Enthalpy 111 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 111 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 111 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 113 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Soft ware 113 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Soft ware 115 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 116 3.8.2 Using Soft ware 119 3.9 Introducing Specifi c Heats cy and cp 122 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 123 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 123 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 124 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 126 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R 127 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 127 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 128 3.11.4 Equations of State 131 Evaluating Properties Using the Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 132 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 135 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specifi c Heats of Ideal Gases 135 3.13.1 Du, Dh, cy, and cp Relations 135 3.13.2 Using Specifi c Heat Functions 137 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specifi c Heats, and Soft ware 138 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 138 3.14.2 Using Constant Specifi c Heats 140 3.14.3 Using Computer Soft ware 142 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 146 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 148 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 169 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 170 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 170 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 171 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 172 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 172 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 173 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 173 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 174 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 174 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 175 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 178 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 178