Michael J.Moran Howard N.Shapiro Daisie D.Boettner Margaret B.Bailey FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS Eighth Edition WILEY
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS Eighth Edition Michael J. Moran | Howard N. Shapiro | Daisie D. Boettner | Margaret B. Bailey
8/e Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics MICHAEL J.MORAN The Ohio State University HOWARD N.SHAPIRO lowa State University DAISIE D.BOETTNER Colonel,U.S.Army MARGARET B.BAILEY Rochester Institute of Technology WILEY
MICHAEL J. MORAN The Ohio State University HOWARD N. SHAPIRO Iowa State University DAISIE D. BOETTNER Colonel, U.S. Army MARGARET B. BAILEY Rochester Institute of Technology Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics 8/e
0I00四000四西0四面00四四 The eighth edition also features a crisp new interior In the twenty-first century,engineering thermodynam- design aimed at helping students ics plays a central role in developing improved ways to better understand and apply the subject matter,and provide and use energy,while mitigating the serious human health and environmental consequences accom- fully appreciate the relevance of the topics to engi- panying energy-including air and water pollution and neering practice and to society. global climate change.Applications in bioengineering, biomedical systems,and nanotechnology also continue to emerge.This book provides the tools needed by spe- 0四0西0团四00团四0 cialists working in all such fields.For non-specialists, This edition also provides,inside the front cover under this book provides background for making decisions the heading How to Use This Book Effectively,an updated about technology related to thermodynamics-on the roadmap to core features of this text that make it so job and as informed citizens. effective for student learning.To fully understand all of Engineers in the twenty-first century need a solid set the many features we have built into the book,be sure of analytical and problem-solving skills as the founda- to see this important element. tion for tackling important societal issues relating to In this edition,several enhancements to improve stu- engineering thermodynamics.The eighth edition devel- dent learning have been introduced or upgraded: ops these skills and significantly expands our coverage The p-h diagrams for two refrigerants:CO2(R-744) of their applications to provide and R-410A are included as Figs.A-10 and A-11, current context for the study of thermodynamic respectively,in the appendix.The ability to locate principles. states on property diagrams is an important skill that is used selectively in end-of-chapter problems. relevant background to make the subject mean- Animations are offered at key subject matter loca- ingful for meeting the challenges of the decades tions to improve student learning.When viewing ahead. the animations,students will develop deeper significant material related to existing technologies understanding by visualizing key processes and in light of new challenges. phenomena. In the eighth edition,we build on the core features Special text elements feature important illustra- that have made the text the global leader in engineering tions of engineering thermodynamics applied to thermodynamics education.We are known for our clear our environment,society,and world: and concise explanations grounded in the fundamen- New ENERGY ENVIRONMENT presenta- tals,pioneering pedagogy for effective learning,and tions explore topics related to energy resource use relevant,up-to-date applications.Through the creativity and environmental issues in engineering. and experience of our author team,and based on excel- lent feedback from instructors and students,we con- Updated BIOCONNECTIONS discussions tie tinue to enhance what has become the leading text in textbook topics to contemporary applications in the field. biomedicine and bioengineering. Additional Horizons features have been included that link subject matter to thought- 000中0四四0团四0西0 provoking 21st century issues and emerging In a major departure from all other texts intended for technologies. the same student population,in this edition we have Suggestions for additional reading and sources for introduced 700 new end-of-chapter problems under the topical content presented in these elements provided heading,c CHECKING UNDERSTANDING.The new prob- on request. lems provide opportunities for student self-testing of fundamentals and to serve instructors as easily graded End-of-Chapter problems in each of the four homework,quiz,and exam problems.Included are a modes:conceptual,checking understanding,skill variety of exercises,such as matching,fill-in- building,and designhave been extensively revised the-blank,short answer,and true-and-false. and hundreds of new problems added. 面
A Textbook for the 21st Century In the twenty-first century, engineering thermodynamics plays a central role in developing improved ways to provide and use energy, while mitigating the serious human health and environmental consequences accompanying energy—including air and water pollution and global climate change. Applications in bioengineering, biomedical systems, and nanotechnology also continue to emerge. This book provides the tools needed by specialists working in all such fields. For non-specialists, this book provides background for making decisions about technology related to thermodynamics—on the job and as informed citizens. Engineers in the twenty-first century need a solid set of analytical and problem-solving skills as the foundation for tackling important societal issues relating to engineering thermodynamics. The eighth edition develops these skills and significantly expands our coverage of their applications to provide • current context for the study of thermodynamic principles. • relevant background to make the subject meaningful for meeting the challenges of the decades ahead. • significant material related to existing technologies in light of new challenges. In the eighth edition, we build on the core features that have made the text the global leader in engineering thermodynamics education. We are known for our clear and concise explanations grounded in the fundamentals, pioneering pedagogy for effective learning, and relevant, up-to-date applications. Through the creativity and experience of our author team, and based on excellent feedback from instructors and students, we continue to enhance what has become the leading text in the field. New in the Eighth Edition In a major departure from all other texts intended for the same student population, in this edition we have introduced 700 new end-of-chapter problems under the heading, c CHECKING UNDERSTANDING . The new problems provide opportunities for student self-testing of fundamentals and to serve instructors as easily graded homework, quiz, and exam problems. Included are a variety of exercises, such as matching, fill-inthe-blank, short answer, and true-and-false. The eighth edition also features a crisp new interior design aimed at helping students • better understand and apply the subject matter, and • fully appreciate the relevance of the topics to engineering practice and to society. Other Core Features This edition also provides, inside the front cover under the heading How to Use This Book Effectively, an updated roadmap to core features of this text that make it so effective for student learning. To fully understand all of the many features we have built into the book, be sure to see this important element. In this edition, several enhancements to improve student learning have been introduced or upgraded: • The p–h diagrams for two refrigerants: CO2 (R-744) and R-410A are included as Figs. A-10 and A-11, respectively, in the appendix. The ability to locate states on property diagrams is an important skill that is used selectively in end-of-chapter problems. • Animations are offered at key subject matter locations to improve student learning. When viewing the animations, students will develop deeper understanding by visualizing key processes and phenomena. • Special text elements feature important illustrations of engineering thermodynamics applied to our environment, society, and world: • New ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT presentations explore topics related to energy resource use and environmental issues in engineering. • Updated BIOCONNECTIONS discussions tie textbook topics to contemporary applications in biomedicine and bioengineering. • Additional Horizons features have been included that link subject matter to thoughtprovoking 21st century issues and emerging technologies. Suggestions for additional reading and sources for topical content presented in these elements provided on request. • End-of-Chapter problems in each of the four modes: conceptual, checking understanding, skill building, and design have been extensively revised and hundreds of new problems added. iii Preface
iv Preface New and revised class-tested material contributes o sample syllabi on semester and quarter bases. to student learning and instructor effectiveness: o errata for both the text and problems. Significant new content explores how thermody- namics contributes to meet the challenges of the o chapter summary information,including Key 21st century. Terms and Key Equations. Key aspects of fundamentals and applications o chapter learning outcomes. within the text have been enhanced. o correlation guides to ease transition between In response to instructor and student needs,class- editions of this text and for switching to this tested changes that contribute to a more just-in- edition from another book. time presentation have been introduced: o text Preface. .TAKE NOTE...entries in the margins are expanded throughout the textbook to improve student Student Companion Site:Helps students learn learning.For example,see p.8. the subject matter with resources including Boxed material allows students and instructors o Steam Table Process Overview-new in this to explore topics in greater depth.For example, edition. see p.109. o animations. Margin terms throughout aid in navigating sub- ject matter. o answers to selected problems. o errata for both the text and problems Supplements o chapter summary information,including Key Terms The following supplements are available with the text: and Key Equations. Outstanding Instructor and Student companion web sites (visit www.wiley.com/college/moran) o chapter learning outcomes. that greatly enhance teaching and learning: o chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Features as Instructor Companion Site:Assists instructors in listed in the Instructor Companion Site. delivering an effective course with resources o text Preface. including Interactive Thermodynamics:IT software is avail- o a new Steam Table Process Overview to assist able as a stand-alone product or with the textbook. students in mastering the use of the steam IT is a highly-valuable learning tool that allows tables for retrieving data. students to develop engineering models,perform o animations-with just-in-time labels in the margins. "what-if analyses,and examine principles in more detail to enhance their learning.Brief tutorials of o chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Fea- /7 are included within the text and the use of /7 tures,including is illustrated within selected solved examples. "the subject of each solved example Skillful use of tables and property diagrams is pre- the topics of all ENERGY ENVIRONMENT. requisite for the effective use of software to BIOCONNECTIONS,and Horizons retrieve thermodynamic property data.The latest features. version of IT provides data for CO2(R-744)and the themes of the DESIGN OPEN R-410A using as its source Mini REFPROP by permission of the National Institute of Standards ENDED PROBLEMS and Technology (NIST). o a complete solution manual that is easy to navigate. WileyPLUS is an online set of instructional,prac- o solutions to computer-based problems for use tice,and course management resources,including the full text,for students and instructors with both IT:Interactive Thermodynamics as well as EES:Engineering Equation Solver. Visit www.wiley.com/college/moran or contact your o image galleries with text images available in local Wiley representative for information on the various helpful electronic formats. above-mentioned supplements
iv Preface • New and revised class-tested material contributes to student learning and instructor effectiveness: • Significant new content explores how thermodynamics contributes to meet the challenges of the 21st century. • Key aspects of fundamentals and applications within the text have been enhanced. • In response to instructor and student needs, classtested changes that contribute to a more just-intime presentation have been introduced: • TAKE NOTE... entries in the margins are expanded throughout the textbook to improve student learning. For example, see p. 8. • Boxed material allows students and instructors to explore topics in greater depth. For example, see p. 109. • Margin terms throughout aid in navigating subject matter. Supplements The following supplements are available with the text: • Outstanding Instructor and Student companion web sites (visit www.wiley.com/college/moran) that greatly enhance teaching and learning: • Instructor Companion Site: Assists instructors in delivering an effective course with resources including a new Steam Table Process Overview to assist students in mastering the use of the steam tables for retrieving data. animations—with just-in-time labels in the margins. chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Features, including the subject of each solved example, the topics of all ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT, BIOCONNECTIONS, and Horizons features, the themes of the DESIGN & OPEN ENDED PROBLEMS a complete solution manual that is easy to navigate. solutions to computer-based problems for use with both IT: Interactive Thermodynamics as well as EES: Engineering Equation Solver. image galleries with text images available in various helpful electronic formats. sample syllabi on semester and quarter bases. errata for both the text and problems. chapter summary information, including Key Terms and Key Equations. chapter learning outcomes. correlation guides to ease transition between editions of this text and for switching to this edition from another book. text Preface. • Student Companion Site: Helps students learn the subject matter with resources including Steam Table Process Overview—new in this edition. animations. answers to selected problems. errata for both the text and problems. chapter summary information, including Key Terms and Key Equations. chapter learning outcomes. chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Features as listed in the Instructor Companion Site. text Preface. • Interactive Thermodynamics: IT software is available as a stand-alone product or with the textbook. IT is a highly-valuable learning tool that allows students to develop engineering models, perform “what-if” analyses, and examine principles in more detail to enhance their learning. Brief tutorials of IT are included within the text and the use of IT is illustrated within selected solved examples. • Skillful use of tables and property diagrams is prerequisite for the effective use of software to retrieve thermodynamic property data. The latest version of IT provides data for CO2 (R-744) and R-410A using as its source Mini REFPROP by permission of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). • WileyPLUS is an online set of instructional, practice, and course management resources, including the full text, for students and instructors. Visit www.wiley.com/college/moran or contact your local Wiley representative for information on the above-mentioned supplements.
Preface Ways to Meet Different Course Needs table illustrates several possible uses of the textbook In recognition of the evolving nature of engineering assuming a semester basis(3 credits).Courses could be taught using this textbook to engineering students with curricula,and in particular of the diverse ways engi- neering thermodynamics is presented,the text is struc- appropriate background beginning in their second year tured to meet a variety of course needs.The following of study. Type of course Intended audience Chapter coverage Principles.Chaps.1-6. Nonmajors Applications.Selected topics from Chaps. 8-10 (omit compressible flow in Chap.9). Survey courses Principles.Chaps.1-6. Majors Applications.Same as above plus selected topics from Chaps.12 and 13. First course.Chaps.1-7.(Chap.7 may be Two-course sequences Majors deferred to second course or omitted.) Second course.Selected topics from Chaps. 8-14 to meet particular course needs
Preface v Type of course Intended audience Chapter coverage • Principles. Chaps. 1–6. Nonmajors • Applications. Selected topics from Chaps. 8–10 (omit compressible flow in Chap. 9). Survey courses • Principles. Chaps. 1–6. Majors • Applications. Same as above plus selected topics from Chaps. 12 and 13. • First course. Chaps. 1–7. (Chap. 7 may be deferred to second course or omitted.) Two-course sequences Majors • Second course. Selected topics from Chaps. 8–14 to meet particular course needs. Ways to Meet Different Course Needs In recognition of the evolving nature of engineering curricula, and in particular of the diverse ways engineering thermodynamics is presented, the text is structured to meet a variety of course needs. The following table illustrates several possible uses of the textbook assuming a semester basis (3 credits). Courses could be taught using this textbook to engineering students with appropriate background beginning in their second year of study
Contents 中0.0年自g9里中中甲08g中0。年年9g8年g中。0年”。年有4中 Getting Started:Introductory 2.1.2 Potential Energy 42 Concepts and Definitions 3 2.1.3 Units for Energy 43 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 4 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 43 1.2 Defining Systems 4 2.1.5 Closing Comment 44 1.2.1 Closed Systems 6 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 44 1.2.2 Control Volumes 6 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 45 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 7 2.2.2 Power 46 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 8 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 47 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics 8 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual Processes 48 1.3.2 Property,State,and Process 9 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in 1.3-3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 9 Quasiequilibrium Processes 48 1-3-4 Equilibrium 10 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 52 1.4 Measuring Mass,Length,Time, 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in and Force 11 Quasiequilibrium Processes 53 1.4.1 SI Units 11 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 54 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 12 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding 1.5 Specific Volume 13 of Energy 55 1.6 Pressure 14 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 56 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 15 2.41 Sign Convention,Notation,and 1.6.2 Buoyancy 16 Heat Transfer Rate 56 1.6.3 Pressure Units 17 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 57 2.4-3 Closing Comments 59 1.7 Temperature 18 1.7.1 Thermometers 19 2.5 Energy Accounting:Energy Balance for Closed Systems 60 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 20 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 62 17.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 21 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance:Processes of Closed Systems 64 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 22 2.5-3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: 1.8.1 Design 23 Steady-State Operation 68 1.8.2 Analysis 23 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: 1.9 Methodology for Solving Transient Operation 70 Thermodynamics Problems 24 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 72 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 26 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 73 2.6.2 Power Cycles 73 2 Energy and the First Law 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 74 of Thermodynamics 39 2.7 Energy Storage 76 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts 2.7.1 Overview 76 of Energy 40 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 76 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 40 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 78 vii
1 Getting Started: Introductory Concepts and Definitions 3 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 4 1.2 Defi ning Systems 4 1.2.1 Closed Systems 6 1.2.2 Control Volumes 6 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 7 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 8 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics 8 1.3.2 Property, State, and Process 9 1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 9 1.3.4 Equilibrium 10 1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 11 1.4.1 SI Units 11 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 12 1.5 Specifi c Volume 13 1.6 Pressure 14 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 15 1.6.2 Buoyancy 16 1.6.3 Pressure Units 17 1.7 Temperature 18 1.7.1 Thermometers 19 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 20 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 21 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 22 1.8.1 Design 23 1.8.2 Analysis 23 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 24 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 26 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 39 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 40 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 40 2.1.2 Potential Energy 42 2.1.3 Units for Energy 43 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 43 2.1.5 Closing Comment 44 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 44 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 45 2.2.2 Power 46 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 47 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual Processes 48 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 48 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 52 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 53 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 54 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 55 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 56 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate 56 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 57 2.4.3 Closing Comments 59 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems 60 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 62 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed Systems 64 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State Operation 68 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 70 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 72 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 73 2.6.2 Power Cycles 73 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 74 2.7 Energy Storage 76 2.7.1 Overview 76 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 76 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 78 vii Contents
viii Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 95 Evaluating Properties Using 3.1 Getting Started 96 the ldeal Gas Model 132 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 96 3.12 Introducing the ldeal Gas 3.1.2 Fixing the State 96 Model 132 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 132 Evaluating Properties: General Considerations 97 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 135 3.2 p-y-T Relation 97 3.13 Internal Energy,Enthalpy,and Specific 3.2.1 -y-T Surface 98 Heats of Ideal Gases 135 3.2.2 Projections of the -y-T Surface 100 3.13.1△u,△h,Cy and Cp Relations135 3.3 Studying Phase Change 101 3-13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 137 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Properties 104 Gas Tables,Constant Specific Heats,and 3.5 Evaluating Pressure,Specific Volume, Software 138 and Temperature 105 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 138 3-5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 105 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 140 3-5.2 Saturation Tables 107 3.14-3 Using Computer Software 142 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 146 Enthalpy 111 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 148 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 111 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 111 4 Control Volume Analysis 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Using Energy 169 Values 113 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Volume 170 Software 113 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Balance 170 Property Tables and Software 115 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 116 Rate 171 3.8.2 Using Software 119 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 172 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats cy 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass and cp 122 Rate Balance 172 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Balance 173 Solids 123 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Balance 173 Saturated Liquid Data 123 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 124 Balance 174 3.11 Generalized Compressibility 4-3.1 Steady-State Application 174 Chart 126 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant,R 127 Application 175 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor,Z 127 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Control Volume 178 Z Chart 128 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a 3.11.4 Equations of State 131 Control Volume 178
viii Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 95 3.1 Getting Started 96 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 96 3.1.2 Fixing the State 96 Evaluating Properties: General Considerations 97 3.2 p–y–T Relation 97 3.2.1 –y–T Surface 98 3.2.2 Projections of the –y–T Surface 100 3.3 Studying Phase Change 101 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 104 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specifi c Volume, and Temperature 105 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 105 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 107 3.6 Evaluating Specifi c Internal Energy and Enthalpy 111 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 111 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 111 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 113 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Soft ware 113 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Soft ware 115 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 116 3.8.2 Using Soft ware 119 3.9 Introducing Specifi c Heats cy and cp 122 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 123 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 123 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 124 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 126 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R 127 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 127 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 128 3.11.4 Equations of State 131 Evaluating Properties Using the Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 132 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 132 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 135 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specifi c Heats of Ideal Gases 135 3.13.1 Du, Dh, cy, and cp Relations 135 3.13.2 Using Specifi c Heat Functions 137 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specifi c Heats, and Soft ware 138 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 138 3.14.2 Using Constant Specifi c Heats 140 3.14.3 Using Computer Soft ware 142 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 146 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 148 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 169 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 170 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 170 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 171 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 172 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 172 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 173 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 173 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 174 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 174 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 175 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 178 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 178
Contents ix 4-4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control 5The Second Law Volume 179 of Thermodynamics 241 4-4-3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 179 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 242 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 242 Rate Balance 180 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Work 244 Steady State 181 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 244 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 245 Rate Balances 181 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Law 245 Volumes at Steady State 182 5.2.2 Kelvin-Planck Statement of the 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 183 Second Law 245 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Considerations 184 Law 247 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 184 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 248 4.7 Turbines 186 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible 4-7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Processes 248 Considerations 188 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 249 4-7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 188 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 250 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 190 5.3-3 Reversible Processes 252 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling 5-3-4 Internally Reversible Processes 253 Considerations 190 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin-Planck 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Statement 254 Pump System 190 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Storage 194 Thermodynamic Cycles 256 4.9 Heat Exchangers 195 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Cycles Interacting with Two Considerations 196 Reservoirs 256 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 256 and Computer Cooling 196 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power 4.10 Throttling Devices 200 Cycles 257 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Considerations 200 Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Reservoirs 259 Determine Quality 201 5-7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 259 4.11 System Integration 202 5-7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for 4.12 Transient Analysis 205 Refrigeration and Heat Pump 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Cycles 260 Analysis 205 5.8 The Kelvin and International 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Temperature Scales 261 Analysis 206 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 261 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 207 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 263 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 215 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 264
Contents ix 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 179 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 179 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 180 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 181 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 181 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 182 4.6 Nozzles and Diff users 183 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diff user Modeling Considerations 184 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 184 4.7 Turbines 186 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 188 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 188 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 190 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 190 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 190 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 194 4.9 Heat Exchangers 195 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 196 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 196 4.10 Throttling Devices 200 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 200 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 201 4.11 System Integration 202 4.12 Transient Analysis 205 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 205 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 206 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 207 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 215 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 241 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 242 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 242 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 244 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 244 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 245 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 245 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 245 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 247 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 248 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 248 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 249 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 250 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 252 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 253 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 254 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 256 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 256 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Effi ciency 256 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 257 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 259 5.7.1 Limits on Coeffi cients of Performance 259 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 260 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 261 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 261 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 263 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 264
Contents 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and for Cycles Operating Between Two Transfer 307 Reservoirs 264 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy 5.9.1 Power Cycles 265 Balance 307 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 267 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 310 5.10 Carnot Cycle 270 6.8 Directionality of Processes 312 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 270 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 312 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 272 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 315 5-10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 272 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control 5.11 Clausius Inequality 273 Volumes 317 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 275 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6 Using Entropy 291 6.10.1 One-Inlet,One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6.1 Entropy-A System Property 292 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 292 Control Volumes at Steady 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 293 State 319 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 293 6.11 Isentropic Processes 325 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 293 6.11.1 General Considerations 326 6.2.1 Vapor Data 294 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 326 6.2.2 Saturation Data 294 6.11.3 Illustrations:Isentropic Processes 6.2.3 Liquid Data 294 ofAir 328 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 295 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 295 Nozzles,Compressors,and Pumps 332 6.3 Introducing the Tds Equations 296 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 332 6.4 Entropy Change of an 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 335 Incompressible Substance 298 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 299 Efficiencies 337 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 299 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 301 Reversible,Steady-State Flow 6.5-3 Computer Retrieval 301 Processes 339 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 339 Processes of Closed Systems 302 6.132Work340 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat 6.13.3 Work In Polytropic Processes 341 Transfer 302 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 343 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 302 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally 7 Exergy Analysis 369 Reversible Process of Water 303 7.1 Introducing Exergy 370 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 305 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 371 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 372 Balance 306 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 372
x Contents 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 264 5.9.1 Power Cycles 265 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 267 5.10 Carnot Cycle 270 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 270 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 272 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 272 5.11 Clausius Inequality 273 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 275 6 Using Entropy 291 6.1 Entropy–A System Property 292 6.1.1 Defi ning Entropy Change 292 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 293 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 293 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 293 6.2.1 Vapor Data 294 6.2.2 Saturation Data 294 6.2.3 Liquid Data 294 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 295 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 295 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 296 6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 298 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 299 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 299 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specifi c Heats 301 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 301 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 302 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 302 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 302 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water 303 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 305 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 306 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 307 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance 307 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 310 6.8 Directionality of Processes 312 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 312 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 315 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 317 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 318 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State 319 6.11 Isentropic Processes 325 6.11.1 General Considerations 326 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 326 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 328 6.12 Isentropic Effi ciencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 332 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Effi ciency 332 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Effi ciency 335 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Effi ciencies 337 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 339 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 339 6.13.2 Work 340 6.13.3 Work In Polytropic Processes 341 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 343 7 Exergy Analysis 369 7.1 Introducing Exergy 370 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 371 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 372 7.2.2 Defi ning Exergy 372
Contents xi 7.3 Exergy of a System 372 8.4 Improving Performance-Regenerative 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 375 Vapor Power Cycle 465 7-3-2 Specific Exergy 376 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 465 7-3-3 Exergy Change 378 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 470 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 378 8.4-3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 471 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 475 Balance 379 8.5.1 Working Fluids 475 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate 8.5.2 Cogeneration 477 Balance 383 8.5-3 Carbon Capture and Storage 477 7-4-3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 384 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 386 8.6 Case Study:Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 480 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes Chapter Summary and Study Guide 487 at Steady State 387 7-5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 390 9 Gas Power Systems 509 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Considering Internal Combustion Engines 510 Volumes at Steady State 390 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 510 7-5-3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 395 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 513 7.6 Exergetic(Second Law)Efficiency 399 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 518 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 400 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 522 7.6.2 Exergetic Efficiencies of Common Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 Components 402 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Efficiencies 404 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 526 77 Thermoeconomics 405 7-7.1 Costing 405 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 527 7-7.2 Using Exergy in Design 406 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 528 7-7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities System 408 and Losses 534 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 413 9-7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 537 8 Vapor Power Systems 437 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 541 Introducing Power Generation 438 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 542 Considering Vapor Power Systems 442 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 544 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 442 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 548 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 445 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 552 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 446 9.9 Gas Turbine-Based Combined Cycles 553 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 449 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine-Vapor Power Cycle 553 8.2.3 Effects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures 9.9.2 Cogeneration 560 on the Rankine Cycle 453 9.10 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 455 Power Plants 560 8.3 Improving Performance-Superheat, 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Reheat,and Supercritical 459 Propulsion 562
Contents xi 7.3 Exergy of a System 372 7.3.1 Exergy Aspects 375 7.3.2 Specifi c Exergy 376 7.3.3 Exergy Change 378 7.4 Closed System Exergy Balance 378 7.4.1 Introducing the Closed System Exergy Balance 379 7.4.2 Closed System Exergy Rate Balance 383 7.4.3 Exergy Destruction and Loss 384 7.4.4 Exergy Accounting 386 7.5 Exergy Rate Balance for Control Volumes at Steady State 387 7.5.1 Comparing Energy and Exergy for Control Volumes at Steady State 390 7.5.2 Evaluating Exergy Destruction in Control Volumes at Steady State 390 7.5.3 Exergy Accounting in Control Volumes at Steady State 395 7.6 Exergetic (Second Law) Effi ciency 399 7.6.1 Matching End Use to Source 400 7.6.2 Exergetic Effi ciencies of Common Components 402 7.6.3 Using Exergetic Effi ciencies 404 7.7 Thermoeconomics 405 7.7.1 Costing 405 7.7.2 Using Exergy in Design 406 7.7.3 Exergy Costing of a Cogeneration System 408 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 413 8 Vapor Power Systems 437 Introducing Power Generation 438 Considering Vapor Power Systems 442 8.1 Introducing Vapor Power Plants 442 8.2 The Rankine Cycle 445 8.2.1 Modeling the Rankine Cycle 446 8.2.2 Ideal Rankine Cycle 449 8.2.3 Eff ects of Boiler and Condenser Pressures on the Rankine Cycle 453 8.2.4 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses 455 8.3 Improving Performance—Superheat, Reheat, and Supercritical 459 8.4 Improving Performance— Regenerative Vapor Power Cycle 465 8.4.1 Open Feedwater Heaters 465 8.4.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters 470 8.4.3 Multiple Feedwater Heaters 471 8.5 Other Vapor Power Cycle Aspects 475 8.5.1 Working Fluids 475 8.5.2 Cogeneration 477 8.5.3 Carbon Capture and Storage 477 8.6 Case Study: Exergy Accounting of a Vapor Power Plant 480 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 487 9 Gas Power Systems 509 Considering Internal Combustion Engines 510 9.1 Introducing Engine Terminology 510 9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 513 9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 518 9.4 Air-Standard Dual Cycle 522 Considering Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 9.5 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 525 9.6 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 526 9.6.1 Evaluating Principal Work and Heat Transfers 527 9.6.2 Ideal Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 528 9.6.3 Considering Gas Turbine Irreversibilities and Losses 534 9.7 Regenerative Gas Turbines 537 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 541 9.8.1 Gas Turbines with Reheat 542 9.8.2 Compression with Intercooling 544 9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling 548 9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles 552 9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 553 9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle 553 9.9.2 Cogeneration 560 9.10 Integrated Gasifi cation Combined-Cycle Power Plants 560 9.11 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion 562
