FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS SEVENTH EDITION MICHAEL J.MORAN I HOWARD N.SHAPIRO DAISIE D.BOETTNER I MARGARET B.BAILEY
Publisher Don Fowley Executive Editor Linda Ratts Editorial Assistant Renata Marchione Marketing Manager Christopher Ruel Content Manager Dorothy Sinclair Production Editor Sandra Dumas Designer James O'Shea Executive Media Editor Thomas Kulesa Photo Department Manager Hilary Newman Photo Editor Sheena Goldstein Production Management Services Ingrao Associates Cover Photo Top photo:Andrey Prokhorov/iStockphoto,Bottom photos clockwise from top left:Liane Cary/Age Fotostock America,Inc..BgDigital/iStockphoto,Philip and Karen Smith/ Getty Images,Inc.,Achim Baque/iStockphoto,Mike Kemp RubberBall/Age Fotostock America.Inc. Fertnig/iStockphoto This book was typeset in 10/12 Times Ten Roman at Aptara.Inc.and printed and bound by Courier/ Westford.The cover was printed by Courier/Westford. Founded in 1807 John Wiley Sons,Inc.has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years,helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work.In 2008.we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative,a global effort to address the environmental,social,economic,and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact,paper specifications and procurement,ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors,and community and charitable support.For more information,please visit our website:www.wiley.com/go/citizenship. The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield-harvesting of its timberlands.Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth. This book is printed on acid-free paper.co Copyright 2011,2008,2004,2000,1996,1993,1988 by John Wiley Sons,Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying recording,scanning or otherwise,except as permit- ted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act,without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center,222 Rosewood Drive,Danvers,MA 01923,(978)750-8400,fax (978)646- 8600.Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department. John Wiley Sons.Inc..111 River Street.Hoboken.NJ 07030-5774.(201)748-6011.fax(201)748-6008. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only,for use in their courses during the next academic year.These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party.Upon completion of the review period,please return the evaluation copy to Wiley.Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/ returnlabel.Outside of the United States,please contact your local representative ISBN 13978-0470-49590-2 ISBN 13978-0470-91768-8 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321
Publisher Don Fowley Executive Editor Linda Ratts Editorial Assistant Renata Marchione Marketing Manager Christopher Ruel Content Manager Dorothy Sinclair Production Editor Sandra Dumas Designer James O’Shea Executive Media Editor Thomas Kulesa Photo Department Manager Hilary Newman Photo Editor Sheena Goldstein Production Management Services Ingrao Associates Cover Photo Top photo: © Andrey Prokhorov/iStockphoto, Bottom photos clockwise from top left: © Liane Cary/Age Fotostock America, Inc., © BgDigital/iStockphoto, © Philip and Karen Smith/ Getty Images, Inc., © Achim Baqué/iStockphoto, © Mike Kemp RubberBall/Age Fotostock America, Inc., © Fertnig/iStockphoto This book was typeset in 10/12 Times Ten Roman at Aptara®, Inc. and printed and bound by Courier/ Westford. The cover was printed by Courier/Westford. Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship. The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield-harvesting of its timberlands. Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ` Copyright © 2011, 2008, 2004, 2000, 1996, 1993, 1988 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646- 8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/ returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. ISBN 13 978-0470-49590-2 ISBN 13 978-0470-91768-8 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FMTOC.indd Page iv 10/23/10 12:06:08 AM f-392 /Users/f-392/Desktop/Nalini 23.9/ch05
○Preface Professors Moran and Shapiro are delighted to wel- New in the Seventh Edition come two new co-authors for the seventh edition of In a major departure from previous editions of this Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. book and all other texts intended for the same student Dr.Daisie D.Boettner,PE,professor of mechanical population,we have introduced animations that engineering at the United States Military Academy at strengthen students'understanding of basic phenom- West Point,and Dr.Margaret B.Bailey,PE,professor ena and applications.The seventh edition also fea- of mechanical engineering at the Rochester Institute tures a crisp new interior design aimed at helping of Technology,bring outstanding experience in engi- students neering education,research,and service to the team Their perspectives enrich the presentation and build better understand and apply the subject matter,and upon our existing strengths in exciting new ways. fully appreciate the relevance of the topics to engi- neering practice and to society. A Textbook for the 21st Century This edition also provides,inside the front cover under In the twenty-first century,engineering thermodynamics the heading How to Use This Book Effectively,an updated plays a central role in developing improved ways to pro- roadmap to core features of this text that make it so vide and use energy,while mitigating the serious human effective for student learning.To fully understand all of health and environmental consequences accompanying the many features we have built into the book,be sure energy-including air and water pollution and global cli- to see this important element. mate change.Applications in bioengineering,biomedical In this edition,several enhancements to improve stu- systems,and nanotechnology also continue to emerge.This dent learning have been introduced or upgraded: book provides the tools needed by specialists working in all such fields.For non-specialists,this book provides back- New animations are offered at key subject matter ground for making decisions about technology related to locations to improve student learning.When view- thermodynamics-on the job and as informed citizens. ing the animations,students will develop deeper Engineers in the twenty-first century need a solid set understanding by visualizing key processes and of analytical and problem-solving skills as the founda- phenomena. tion for tackling important societal issues relating to engineering thermodynamics.The seventh edition Special text elements feature important illustra- develops these skills and significantly expands our cov- tions of engineering thermodynamics applied to erage of their applications to provide our environment,society,and world: current context for the study of thermodynamic New ENERGY ENVIRONMENT presenta- principles. tions explore topics related to energy resource use and environmental issues in engineering. relevant background to make the subject meaningful for meeting the challenges of the decades ahead. Updated BIOCONNECTIONS discussions tie textbook topics to contemporary applications in significant material related to existing technologies biomedicine and bioengineering in light of new challenges. 。Additional Horizons⑤ features have been In the seventh edition,we build on the core features included that link subject matter to thought- that have made the text the global leader in engineer- ing thermodynamics education.(The present discussion provoking 21st century issues and emerging of core features centers on new aspects;see the Preface technologies. to the sixth edition for more.)We are known for our Suggestions for additional reading and sources for clear and concise explanations grounded in the funda- topical content presented in these elements provided mentals,pioneering pedagogy for effective learning, on request. and relevant,up-to-date applications.Through the cre- ativity and experience of our newly expanded author End-of-Chapter problems in each of the three team,and based on excellent feedback from instructors modes:conceptual,skill building,and design have and students,we continue to enhance what has become been extensively revised and hundreds of new the leading text in the field. problems added
v A Textbook for the 21st Century In the twenty-first century, engineering thermodynamics plays a central role in developing improved ways to provide and use energy, while mitigating the serious human health and environmental consequences accompanying energy—including air and water pollution and global climate change. Applications in bioengineering, biomedical systems, and nanotechnology also continue to emerge. This book provides the tools needed by specialists working in all such fields. For non-specialists, this book provides background for making decisions about technology related to thermodynamics—on the job and as informed citizens. Engineers in the twenty-first century need a solid set of analytical and problem-solving skills as the foundation for tackling important societal issues relating to engineering thermodynamics. The seventh edition develops these skills and significantly expands our coverage of their applications to provide • current context for the study of thermodynamic principles. • relevant background to make the subject meaningful for meeting the challenges of the decades ahead. • significant material related to existing technologies in light of new challenges. In the seventh edition, we build on the core features that have made the text the global leader in engineering thermodynamics education. (The present discussion of core features centers on new aspects; see the Preface to the sixth edition for more.) We are known for our clear and concise explanations grounded in the fundamentals, pioneering pedagogy for effective learning, and relevant, up-to-date applications. Through the creativity and experience of our newly expanded author team, and based on excellent feedback from instructors and students, we continue to enhance what has become the leading text in the field. New in the Seventh Edition In a major departure from previous editions of this book and all other texts intended for the same student population, we have introduced animations that strengthen students’ understanding of basic phenomena and applications. The seventh edition also features a crisp new interior design aimed at helping students • better understand and apply the subject matter, and • fully appreciate the relevance of the topics to engineering practice and to society. This edition also provides, inside the front cover under the heading How to Use This Book Effectively, an updated roadmap to core features of this text that make it so effective for student learning. To fully understand all of the many features we have built into the book, be sure to see this important element. In this edition, several enhancements to improve student learning have been introduced or upgraded: • New animations are offered at key subject matter locations to improve student learning. When viewing the animations, students will develop deeper understanding by visualizing key processes and phenomena. • Special text elements feature important illustrations of engineering thermodynamics applied to our environment, society, and world: • New ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT presentations explore topics related to energy resource use and environmental issues in engineering. • Updated BIOCONNECTIONS discussions tie textbook topics to contemporary applications in biomedicine and bioengineering. • Additional Horizons features have been included that link subject matter to thoughtprovoking 21st century issues and emerging technologies. Suggestions for additional reading and sources for topical content presented in these elements provided on request. • End-of-Chapter problems in each of the three modes: conceptual, skill building, and design have been extensively revised and hundreds of new problems added. Preface Professors Moran and Shapiro are delighted to welcome two new co-authors for the seventh edition of Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics. Dr. Daisie D. Boettner, PE, professor of mechanical engineering at the United States Military Academy at West Point, and Dr. Margaret B. Bailey, PE, professor of mechanical engineering at the Rochester Institute of Technology, bring outstanding experience in engineering education, research, and service to the team. Their perspectives enrich the presentation and build upon our existing strengths in exciting new ways. FMTOC.indd Page v 10/15/10 7:17:02 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
vi Preface New and revised class-tested material contributes o errata for both the text and problems. to student learning and instructor effectiveness: o chapter summary information,including Key Significant new content explores how thermody- Terms and Key Equations. namics contributes to meet the challenges of the o chapter learning outcomes. 21st century. o correlation guides to ease transition between Key aspects of fundamentals and applications editions of this text and for switching to this within the text have been enhanced. edition from another book. In response to instructor and student needs,class- o text Preface tested changes that contribute to a more just-in- time presentation have been introduced: Student Companion Site:Helps students learn the subject matter with resources including TAKE NOTE...entries in the margins are expanded throughout the textbook to improve student o animations-new in this edition. learning.For example,see p.8. o answers to selected problems Boxed material allows students and instructors o errata for both the text and problems. to explore topics in greater depth.For example, see p.188. o chapter summary information,including Key Terms and Key Equations. New margin terms at many locations aid in navigating subject matter. o chapter learning outcomes. o chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Features as Supplements listed in the Instructor Companion Site. The following supplements are available with the text: o text Preface Outstanding Instructor and Student companion Interactive Thermodynamic:IT software is avail- web sites (visit www.wiley.com/college/moran) able as a stand-alone product or with the text- that greatly enhance teaching and learning: book.IT is a highly-valuable learning tool that Instructor Companion Site:Assists instructors in allows students to develop engineering models, delivering an effective course with resources perform "what-if"analyses,and examine princi- including ples in more detail to enhance their learning.Brief tutorials of IT are included within the text and the o animations-new in this edition. use of IT is illustrated within selected solved o chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Fea- examples. tures,including WileyPLUS is an online set of instructional,prac- the subject of each solved example, tice,and course management resources,including the full text,for students and instructors. the topics of all ENERGY ENVIRONMENT BIOCONNECTIONS,and Horizons Visit www.wiley.com/college/moran or contact your features, local Wiley representative for information on the the themes of the accompanying DESIGN above-mentioned supplements. OPEN ENDED PROBLEMS Ways to Meet Different Course Needs o a complete solution manual that is easy to navi- In recognition of the evolving nature of engineering gate. curricula,and in particular of the diverse ways engi- o solutions to computer-based problems for use neering thermodynamics is presented,the text is struc- with both IT:Interactive Thermodynamics as tured to meet a variety of course needs.The following well as EES:Engineering Equation Solver. table illustrates several possible uses of the textbook o image galleries with text images available in assuming a semester basis(3 credits).Courses could be various helpful electronic formats taught using this textbook to engineering students with appropriate background beginning in their second year o sample syllabi on semester and quarter bases. of study
• New and revised class-tested material contributes to student learning and instructor effectiveness: • Significant new content explores how thermodynamics contributes to meet the challenges of the 21st century. • Key aspects of fundamentals and applications within the text have been enhanced. • In response to instructor and student needs, classtested changes that contribute to a more just-intime presentation have been introduced: • TAKE NOTE... entries in the margins are expanded throughout the textbook to improve student learning. For example, see p. 8. • Boxed material allows students and instructors to explore topics in greater depth. For example, see p. 188. • New margin terms at many locations aid in navigating subject matter. Supplements The following supplements are available with the text: • Outstanding Instructor and Student companion web sites (visit www.wiley.com/college/moran) that greatly enhance teaching and learning: • Instructor Companion Site: Assists instructors in delivering an effective course with resources including animations—new in this edition. chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Features, including the subject of each solved example, the topics of all ENERGY & ENVIRONMENT, BIOCONNECTIONS, and Horizons features, the themes of the accompanying DESIGN & OPEN ENDED PROBLEMS a complete solution manual that is easy to navigate. solutions to computer-based problems for use with both IT: Interactive Thermodynamics as well as EES: Engineering Equation Solver. image galleries with text images available in various helpful electronic formats. sample syllabi on semester and quarter bases. errata for both the text and problems. chapter summary information, including Key Terms and Key Equations. chapter learning outcomes. correlation guides to ease transition between editions of this text and for switching to this edition from another book. text Preface. • Student Companion Site: Helps students learn the subject matter with resources including animations—new in this edition. answers to selected problems. errata for both the text and problems. chapter summary information, including Key Terms and Key Equations. chapter learning outcomes. chapter-by-chapter summary of Special Features as listed in the Instructor Companion Site. text Preface. • Interactive Thermodynamic: IT software is available as a stand-alone product or with the textbook. IT is a highly-valuable learning tool that allows students to develop engineering models, perform “what-if” analyses, and examine principles in more detail to enhance their learning. Brief tutorials of IT are included within the text and the use of IT is illustrated within selected solved examples. • WileyPLUS is an online set of instructional, practice, and course management resources, including the full text, for students and instructors. Visit www.wiley.com/college/moran or contact your local Wiley representative for information on the above-mentioned supplements. Ways to Meet Different Course Needs In recognition of the evolving nature of engineering curricula, and in particular of the diverse ways engineering thermodynamics is presented, the text is structured to meet a variety of course needs. The following table illustrates several possible uses of the textbook assuming a semester basis (3 credits). Courses could be taught using this textbook to engineering students with appropriate background beginning in their second year of study. vi Preface FMTOC.indd Page vi 10/15/10 7:22:15 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
Preface vii Type of course Intended audience Chapter coverage Principles.Chaps.1-6. Nonmajors Applications.Selected topics from Chaps. 8-10 (omit compressible flow in Chap.9). Surveys Principles.Chaps.1-6. Majors Applications.Same as above plus selected topics from Chaps.12 and 13. First course.Chaps.1-7.(Chap.7 may be Two-course sequences Majors deferred to second course or omitted.) Second course.Selected topics from Chaps. 8-14 to meet particular course needs
Type of course Intended audience Chapter coverage • Principles. Chaps. 1–6. Nonmajors • Applications. Selected topics from Chaps. 8–10 (omit compressible flow in Chap. 9). Surveys • Principles. Chaps. 1–6. Majors • Applications. Same as above plus selected topics from Chaps. 12 and 13. • First course. Chaps. 1–7. (Chap. 7 may be deferred to second course or omitted.) Two-course sequences Majors • Second course. Selected topics from Chaps. 8–14 to meet particular course needs. Preface vii FMTOC.indd Page vii 10/14/10 2:09:05 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
○Acknowledgments We thank the many users of our previous editions. Paul Puzinauskas,University of Alabama located at hundreds of universities and colleges in the Muhammad Mustafizur Rahman,University of United States,Canada,and world-wide,who continue South Florida to contribute to the development of our text through their comments and constructive criticism. Jacques C.Richard,Texas A&M University The following colleagues have assisted in the devel- Charles Ritz,California State Polytechnic Univer- opment of this edition.We greatly appreciate their con- sity,Pomona tributions: Francisco Ruiz,Illinois Institute of Technology John Abbitt,University of Florida Iskender Sahin,Western Michigan University Ralph Aldredge,University of California-Davis Will Schreiber,University of Alabama Leticia Anaya,University of North Texas Enrico Sciubba,University of Rome (Italy) Kendrick Aung,Lamar University Tien-Mo Shih,University of Maryland Cory Berkland,The University of Kansas Larry Sobel,Raytheon Missile Systems Justin Barone,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Thomas Twardowski,Widener University State University V.Ismet Ugursal,Dalhousie University,Nova Scotia. William Bathie,Iowa State University Angela Violi,University of Michigan Leonard Berkowitz,California State Polytechnic K.Max Zhang,Cornell University University,Pomona The views expressed in this text are those of the authors Eugene F.Brown,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and do not necessarily reflect those of individual con- and State University tributors listed,The Ohio State University,Wayne State David L.Ernst,Texas Tech University University,Rochester Institute of Technology,the Sebastien Feve,Iowa State University United States Military Academy,the Department of the Army,or the Department of Defense. Timothy Fox,California State University- We also acknowledge the efforts of many individ- Northridge uals in the John Wiley and Sons,Inc.,organization Nick Glumac,University of Illinois at Urbana- who have contributed their talents and energy to this Champaign edition.We applaud their professionalism and com- Tahereh S.Hall,Virginia Polytechnic mitment. Institute and State University We continue to be extremely gratified by the recep- Daniel W.Hoch,University of North Carolina- tion this book has enjoyed over the years.With this edition we have made the text more effective for teach- Charlotte ing the subject of engineering thermodynamics and Timothy J.Jacobs,Texas A&M University have greatly enhanced the relevance of the subject Fazal B.Kauser,California State Polytechnic matter for students who will shape the 21st century.As University,Pomona always,we welcome your comments,criticisms,and MinJun Kim,Drexel University suggestions. Joseph F.Kmec,Purdue University Michael J.Moran Feng C.Lai,University of Oklahoma moran.4@osu.edu Kevin Lyons,North Carolina State University Howard N.Shapiro hshapiro@wayne.edu Pedro Mago,Mississippi State University Daisie D.Boettner Raj M.Manglik,University of Cincinnati BoettnerD@aol.com Thuan Nguyen,California State Polytechnic Margaret B.Bailey University,Pomona Margaret.Bailey@rit.edu John Pfotenhauer,University of Wisconsin-Madison viii
We thank the many users of our previous editions, located at hundreds of universities and colleges in the United States, Canada, and world-wide, who continue to contribute to the development of our text through their comments and constructive criticism. The following colleagues have assisted in the development of this edition. We greatly appreciate their contributions: John Abbitt, University of Florida Ralph Aldredge, University of California-Davis Leticia Anaya, University of North Texas Kendrick Aung, Lamar University Cory Berkland, The University of Kansas Justin Barone, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University William Bathie, Iowa State University Leonard Berkowitz, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Eugene F. Brown, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University David L. Ernst, Texas Tech University Sebastien Feve, Iowa State University Timothy Fox, California State University- Northridge Nick Glumac, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign Tahereh S. Hall, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Daniel W. Hoch, University of North Carolina- Charlotte Timothy J. Jacobs, Texas A&M University Fazal B. Kauser, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona MinJun Kim, Drexel University Joseph F. Kmec, Purdue University Feng C. Lai, University of Oklahoma Kevin Lyons, North Carolina State University Pedro Mago, Mississippi State University Raj M. Manglik, University of Cincinnati Thuan Nguyen, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona John Pfotenhauer, University of Wisconsin- Madison Paul Puzinauskas, University of Alabama Muhammad Mustafizur Rahman, University of South Florida Jacques C. Richard, Texas A&M University Charles Ritz, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Francisco Ruiz, Illinois Institute of Technology Iskender Sahin, Western Michigan University Will Schreiber, University of Alabama Enrico Sciubba, University of Rome (Italy) Tien-Mo Shih, University of Maryland Larry Sobel, Raytheon Missile Systems Thomas Twardowski, Widener University V. Ismet Ugursal, Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia. Angela Violi, University of Michigan K. Max Zhang, Cornell University The views expressed in this text are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of individual contributors listed, The Ohio State University, Wayne State University, Rochester Institute of Technology, the United States Military Academy, the Department of the Army, or the Department of Defense. We also acknowledge the efforts of many individuals in the John Wiley and Sons, Inc., organization who have contributed their talents and energy to this edition. We applaud their professionalism and commitment. We continue to be extremely gratified by the reception this book has enjoyed over the years. With this edition we have made the text more effective for teaching the subject of engineering thermodynamics and have greatly enhanced the relevance of the subject matter for students who will shape the 21st century. As always, we welcome your comments, criticisms, and suggestions. Michael J. Moran moran.4@osu.edu Howard N. Shapiro hshapiro@wayne.edu Daisie D. Boettner BoettnerD@aol.com Margaret B. Bailey Margaret.Bailey@rit.edu Acknowledgments viii FMTOC.indd Page viii 10/14/10 2:09:05 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
○Contents 1 Getting Started:Introductory 2.1.2 Potential Energy 40 Concepts and Definitions 3 2.1.3 Units for Energy 41 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 41 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 4 2.1.5 Closing Comment 42 1.2 Defining Systems 4 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 42 1.2.1 Closed Systems 6 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 43 1.2.2 Control Volumes 6 2.2.2 Power 44 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 7 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 8 Work 45 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual of Thermodynamics 8 Processes 46 1.3.2 Property,State,and Process 9 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in 1.3-3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 9 Quasiequilibrium Processes 46 1.3.4 Equilibrium 10 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 50 1.4 Measuring Mass,Length,Time, 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in and Force 11 Quasiequilibrium Processes 51 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 52 1.4151 Units11 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 12 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 53 1.5 Specific Volume 13 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 54 1.6 Pressure 14 2.4.1 Sign Convention,Notation,and 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 15 Heat Transfer Rate 54 1.6.2 Buoyancy 16 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 55 1.6.3 Pressure Units 17 2.4-3 Closing Comments 57 1.7 Temperature 18 2.5 Energy Accounting:Energy Balance 1.7.1 Thermometers 19 for Closed Systems 58 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 60 Scales 20 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance:Processes 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 21 of Closed Systems 62 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 22 2.5-3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: 1.8.1 Design 23 Steady-State Operation 66 1.8.2 Analysis 23 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 68 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 24 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 70 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 71 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 26 2.6.2 Power Cycles 71 2 Energy and the First Law 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 72 of Thermodynamics 37 2.7 Energy Storage 74 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts 2.7.1 Overview 74 of Energy 38 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 74 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 38 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 75 ix
Contents 1 Getting Started: Introductory Concepts and Definitions 3 1.1 Using Thermodynamics 4 1.2 Defi ning Systems 4 1.2.1 Closed Systems 6 1.2.2 Control Volumes 6 1.2.3 Selecting the System Boundary 7 1.3 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 8 1.3.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Views of Thermodynamics 8 1.3.2 Property, State, and Process 9 1.3.3 Extensive and Intensive Properties 9 1.3.4 Equilibrium 10 1.4 Measuring Mass, Length, Time, and Force 11 1.4.1 SI Units 11 1.4.2 English Engineering Units 12 1.5 Specifi c Volume 13 1.6 Pressure 14 1.6.1 Pressure Measurement 15 1.6.2 Buoyancy 16 1.6.3 Pressure Units 17 1.7 Temperature 18 1.7.1 Thermometers 19 1.7.2 Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales 20 1.7.3 Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales 21 1.8 Engineering Design and Analysis 22 1.8.1 Design 23 1.8.2 Analysis 23 1.9 Methodology for Solving Thermodynamics Problems 24 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 26 2 Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics 37 2.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 38 2.1.1 Work and Kinetic Energy 38 2.1.2 Potential Energy 40 2.1.3 Units for Energy 41 2.1.4 Conservation of Energy in Mechanics 41 2.1.5 Closing Comment 42 2.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 42 2.2.1 Sign Convention and Notation 43 2.2.2 Power 44 2.2.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 45 2.2.4 Expansion or Compression Work in Actual Processes 46 2.2.5 Expansion or Compression Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 46 2.2.6 Further Examples of Work 50 2.2.7 Further Examples of Work in Quasiequilibrium Processes 51 2.2.8 Generalized Forces and Displacements 52 2.3 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 53 2.4 Energy Transfer by Heat 54 2.4.1 Sign Convention, Notation, and Heat Transfer Rate 54 2.4.2 Heat Transfer Modes 55 2.4.3 Closing Comments 57 2.5 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed Systems 58 2.5.1 Important Aspects of the Energy Balance 60 2.5.2 Using the Energy Balance: Processes of Closed Systems 62 2.5.3 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Steady-State Operation 66 2.5.4 Using the Energy Rate Balance: Transient Operation 68 2.6 Energy Analysis of Cycles 70 2.6.1 Cycle Energy Balance 71 2.6.2 Power Cycles 71 2.6.3 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 72 2.7 Energy Storage 74 2.7.1 Overview 74 2.7.2 Storage Technologies 74 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 75 ix FMTOC.indd Page ix 10/14/10 2:09:05 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
x Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 91 Evaluating Properties Using the Ideal Gas Model 127 3.1 Getting Started 92 3.12 Introducing the ldeal Gas 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 92 Model 127 3.1.2 Fixing the State 92 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 127 Evaluating Properties: 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 128 General Considerations 93 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 130 3.2 p-v-T Relation 93 3-13 Internal Energy,Enthalpy,and Specific 3.2.1 P-v-T Surface 94 Heats of Ideal Gases 130 3.2.2 Projections of the P-v-T Surface 96 3.i3.1△u,△h,c,and ce Relations13o 3.3 Studying Phase Change 97 3.13.2 Using Specific Heat Functions 132 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Properties 100 Gas Tables,Constant Specific Heats,and Software 133 3.5 Evaluating Pressure,Specific Volume, 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 133 and Temperature 1o0 3.14.2 Using Constant Specific Heats 135 3-5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 100 3.14.3 Using Computer Software 137 3-5.2 Saturation Tables 103 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 141 3.6 Evaluating Specific Internal Energy and Enthalpy 106 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 143 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 106 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 107 4 Control Volume Analysis 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Using Energy 163 Values 108 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Volume 164 Software 109 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Balance 164 Property Tables and Software 110 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 112 Rate 165 3.8.2 Using Software 115 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 166 3.9 Introducing Specific Heats c 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 166 and Cp 117 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Balance 167 Solids 118 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Balance 167 Saturated Liguid Data 118 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 119 Balance 168 3.11 Generalized Compressibility 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 168 Chart 122 4.3.2 Time-Dependent(Transient) 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant,R 122 Application 169 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor,Z 122 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Control Volume 172 Z Chart 123 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a 3.11.4 Equations of State 126 Control Volume 172
x Contents 3 Evaluating Properties 91 3.1 Getting Started 92 3.1.1 Phase and Pure Substance 92 3.1.2 Fixing the State 92 Evaluating Properties: General Considerations 93 3.2 p–y–T Relation 93 3.2.1 p–y–T Surface 94 3.2.2 Projections of the p–y–T Surface 96 3.3 Studying Phase Change 97 3.4 Retrieving Thermodynamic Properties 100 3.5 Evaluating Pressure, Specifi c Volume, and Temperature 100 3.5.1 Vapor and Liquid Tables 100 3.5.2 Saturation Tables 103 3.6 Evaluating Specifi c Internal Energy and Enthalpy 106 3.6.1 Introducing Enthalpy 106 3.6.2 Retrieving u and h Data 107 3.6.3 Reference States and Reference Values 108 3.7 Evaluating Properties Using Computer Software 109 3.8 Applying the Energy Balance Using Property Tables and Software 110 3.8.1 Using Property Tables 112 3.8.2 Using Software 115 3.9 Introducing Specifi c Heats cy and cp 117 3.10 Evaluating Properties of Liquids and Solids 118 3.10.1 Approximations for Liquids Using Saturated Liquid Data 118 3.10.2 Incompressible Substance Model 119 3.11 Generalized Compressibility Chart 122 3.11.1 Universal Gas Constant, R 122 3.11.2 Compressibility Factor, Z 122 3.11.3 Generalized Compressibility Data, Z Chart 123 3.11.4 Equations of State 126 Evaluating Properties Using the Ideal Gas Model 127 3.12 Introducing the Ideal Gas Model 127 3.12.1 Ideal Gas Equation of State 127 3.12.2 Ideal Gas Model 128 3.12.3 Microscopic Interpretation 130 3.13 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specifi c Heats of Ideal Gases 130 3.13.1 Du, Dh, cy, and cp Relations 130 3.13.2 Using Specifi c Heat Functions 132 3.14 Applying the Energy Balance Using Ideal Gas Tables, Constant Specifi c Heats, and Software 133 3.14.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 133 3.14.2 Using Constant Specifi c Heats 135 3.14.3 Using Computer Software 137 3.15 Polytropic Process Relations 141 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 143 4 Control Volume Analysis Using Energy 163 4.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 164 4.1.1 Developing the Mass Rate Balance 164 4.1.2 Evaluating the Mass Flow Rate 165 4.2 Forms of the Mass Rate Balance 166 4.2.1 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Mass Rate Balance 166 4.2.2 Steady-State Form of the Mass Rate Balance 167 4.2.3 Integral Form of the Mass Rate Balance 167 4.3 Applications of the Mass Rate Balance 168 4.3.1 Steady-State Application 168 4.3.2 Time-Dependent (Transient) Application 169 4.4 Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume 172 4.4.1 Developing the Energy Rate Balance for a Control Volume 172 FMTOC.indd Page x 10/14/10 2:09:06 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
Contents xi 4.4-2 Evaluating Work for a Control 5 The Second Law Volume 173 of Thermodynamics 235 4.4-3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 173 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 236 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 236 Rate Balance 174 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Work 238 Steady State 175 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 238 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 239 Rate Balances 175 5-2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Law 239 Volumes at Steady State 176 5.2.2 Kelvin-Planck Statement of the 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 Second Law 239 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Considerations 178 Law 241 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 178 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 242 4.7 Turbines 180 5-3 Irreversible and Reversible 4-7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Processes 242 Considerations 182 5-3.1 Irreversible Processes 242 4-7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 182 5-3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 244 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 184 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 245 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 246 Considerations 184 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin-Planck 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 184 Statement 247 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Storage 188 Thermodynamic Cycles 248 4.9 Heat Exchangers 189 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Cycles Interacting with Two Considerations 190 Reservoirs 249 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Efficiency 249 and Computer Cooling 190 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power 4.10 Throttling Devices 194 Cycles 249 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling 5-7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Considerations 194 Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Reservoirs 251 Determine Quality 195 5-7.1 Limits on Coefficients of Performance 251 4.11 System Integration 196 5-7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for 4.12 Transient Analysis 199 Refrigeration and Heat Pump 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Cycles 252 Analysis 199 5.8 The Kelvin and International 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Temperature Scales 253 Analysis 200 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 253 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 201 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 255 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 209 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 256
Contents xi 4.4.2 Evaluating Work for a Control Volume 173 4.4.3 One-Dimensional Flow Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 173 4.4.4 Integral Form of the Control Volume Energy Rate Balance 174 4.5 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 175 4.5.1 Steady-State Forms of the Mass and Energy Rate Balances 175 4.5.2 Modeling Considerations for Control Volumes at Steady State 176 4.6 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 4.6.1 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling Considerations 178 4.6.2 Application to a Steam Nozzle 178 4.7 Turbines 180 4.7.1 Steam and Gas Turbine Modeling Considerations 182 4.7.2 Application to a Steam Turbine 182 4.8 Compressors and Pumps 184 4.8.1 Compressor and Pump Modeling Considerations 184 4.8.2 Applications to an Air Compressor and a Pump System 184 4.8.3 Pumped-Hydro and Compressed-Air Energy Storage 188 4.9 Heat Exchangers 189 4.9.1 Heat Exchanger Modeling Considerations 190 4.9.2 Applications to a Power Plant Condenser and Computer Cooling 190 4.10 Throttling Devices 194 4.10.1 Throttling Device Modeling Considerations 194 4.10.2 Using a Throttling Calorimeter to Determine Quality 195 4.11 System Integration 196 4.12 Transient Analysis 199 4.12.1 The Mass Balance in Transient Analysis 199 4.12.2 The Energy Balance in Transient Analysis 200 4.12.3 Transient Analysis Applications 201 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 209 5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 235 5.1 Introducing the Second Law 236 5.1.1 Motivating the Second Law 236 5.1.2 Opportunities for Developing Work 238 5.1.3 Aspects of the Second Law 238 5.2 Statements of the Second Law 239 5.2.1 Clausius Statement of the Second Law 239 5.2.2 Kelvin–Planck Statement of the Second Law 239 5.2.3 Entropy Statement of the Second Law 241 5.2.4 Second Law Summary 242 5.3 Irreversible and Reversible Processes 242 5.3.1 Irreversible Processes 242 5.3.2 Demonstrating Irreversibility 244 5.3.3 Reversible Processes 245 5.3.4 Internally Reversible Processes 246 5.4 Interpreting the Kelvin–Planck Statement 247 5.5 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic Cycles 248 5.6 Second Law Aspects of Power Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 249 5.6.1 Limit on Thermal Effi ciency 249 5.6.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Power Cycles 249 5.7 Second Law Aspects of Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles Interacting with Two Reservoirs 251 5.7.1 Limits on Coeffi cients of Performance 251 5.7.2 Corollaries of the Second Law for Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 252 5.8 The Kelvin and International Temperature Scales 253 5.8.1 The Kelvin Scale 253 5.8.2 The Gas Thermometer 255 5.8.3 International Temperature Scale 256 FMTOC.indd Page xi 10/14/10 2:09:06 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
xii Contents 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and for Cycles Operating Between Two Transfer 297 Reservoirs 256 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy 5.9.1 Power Cycles 257 Balance 297 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 259 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 300 5.10 Carnot Cycle 262 6.8 Directionality of Processes 302 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 262 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 302 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 264 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 305 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 264 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control 5.11 Clausius Inequality 264 Volumes 307 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 266 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 308 6 Using Entropy 281 6.10.1 One-Inlet,One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 308 6.1 Entropy-A System Property 282 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to 6.1.1 Defining Entropy Change 282 Control Volumes at Steady 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 283 State 309 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 283 6.11 Isentropic Processes 315 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 283 6.11.1 General Considerations 316 6.2.1 Vapor Data 284 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 316 6.2.2 Saturation Data 284 6.11.3 lllustrations:Isentropic Processes of Air 318 6.2.3 Liguid Data 284 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 285 6.12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 285 Nozzles,Compressors,and Pumps 322 6.3 Introducing the Tds Equations 286 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Efficiency 322 6.4 Entropy Change of an 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Efficiency 325 Incompressible Substance 288 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 289 Efficiencies 327 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 289 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specific Heats 291 Reversible,Steady-State Flow 6.5-3 Computer Retrieval 291 Processes 329 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 329 Processes of Closed Systems 292 6.13.2Work330 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat 6.13.3 Work In Polytropic Processes 331 Transfer 292 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 333 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 292 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally 7Exergy Analysis 359 Reversible Process of Water 293 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed 7.1 Introducing Exergy 360 Systems 295 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 361 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 362 Balance 296 7.2.2 Defining Exergy 362
xii Contents 5.9 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles Operating Between Two Reservoirs 256 5.9.1 Power Cycles 257 5.9.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 259 5.10 Carnot Cycle 262 5.10.1 Carnot Power Cycle 262 5.10.2 Carnot Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles 264 5.10.3 Carnot Cycle Summary 264 5.11 Clausius Inequality 264 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 266 6 Using Entropy 281 6.1 Entropy–A System Property 282 6.1.1 Defi ning Entropy Change 282 6.1.2 Evaluating Entropy 283 6.1.3 Entropy and Probability 283 6.2 Retrieving Entropy Data 283 6.2.1 Vapor Data 284 6.2.2 Saturation Data 284 6.2.3 Liquid Data 284 6.2.4 Computer Retrieval 285 6.2.5 Using Graphical Entropy Data 285 6.3 Introducing the T dS Equations 286 6.4 Entropy Change of an Incompressible Substance 288 6.5 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas 289 6.5.1 Using Ideal Gas Tables 289 6.5.2 Assuming Constant Specifi c Heats 291 6.5.3 Computer Retrieval 291 6.6 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible Processes of Closed Systems 292 6.6.1 Area Representation of Heat Transfer 292 6.6.2 Carnot Cycle Application 292 6.6.3 Work and Heat Transfer in an Internally Reversible Process of Water 293 6.7 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 295 6.7.1 Interpreting the Closed System Entropy Balance 296 6.7.2 Evaluating Entropy Production and Transfer 297 6.7.3 Applications of the Closed System Entropy Balance 297 6.7.4 Closed System Entropy Rate Balance 300 6.8 Directionality of Processes 302 6.8.1 Increase of Entropy Principle 302 6.8.2 Statistical Interpretation of Entropy 305 6.9 Entropy Rate Balance for Control Volumes 307 6.10 Rate Balances for Control Volumes at Steady State 308 6.10.1 One-Inlet, One-Exit Control Volumes at Steady State 308 6.10.2 Applications of the Rate Balances to Control Volumes at Steady State 309 6.11 Isentropic Processes 315 6.11.1 General Considerations 316 6.11.2 Using the Ideal Gas Model 316 6.11.3 Illustrations: Isentropic Processes of Air 318 6.12 Isentropic Effi ciencies of Turbines, Nozzles, Compressors, and Pumps 322 6.12.1 Isentropic Turbine Effi ciency 322 6.12.2 Isentropic Nozzle Effi ciency 325 6.12.3 Isentropic Compressor and Pump Effi ciencies 327 6.13 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible, Steady-State Flow Processes 329 6.13.1 Heat Transfer 329 6.13.2 Work 330 6.13.3 Work In Polytropic Processes 331 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 333 7 Exergy Analysis 359 7.1 Introducing Exergy 360 7.2 Conceptualizing Exergy 361 7.2.1 Environment and Dead State 362 7.2.2 Defi ning Exergy 362 FMTOC.indd Page xii 10/14/10 2:09:07 PM user-f391 /Users/user-f391/Desktop/24_09_10/JWCL339/New File
