UNESCO 577 of culture and therefore merited special recognition in the organization's mission and title had to be fought for by scientists and science promoters in government during the preliminary meetings and negotiations that took place in 1942-45.The fact that they succeeded in getting a piece of the new organization to serve their own interests was due in part to the organizational strength and coherence of the international science community and in part to their ability to influence world affairs,as had been demonstrated at Hiro- shima.19 The combination of these two convinced the president of the conference charged with establishing the new organization to support addition of the word"Scientific"to the title with the following remarks:"In these days, when we are all wondering,perhaps apprehensively,what the scientists will do to us next,it is important that they should be linked closely with the humanities and should feel that they have a responsibility to mankind for the result of their labours."20 UNESCO's early science programs and organizational structure Giving science a titular role in the new interstate organization was a way of recognizing the importance of science to the state but did not,in those early years,entail state direction or control of scientific research.UNESCO's early science programs were designed to serve science and scientists rather than states.They aimed to increase the world sum of scientific knowledge and access to that knowledge without regard to national boundaries.The notion implicit in science policy,that science is a national resource to be developed by individual states,is very different from UNESCO's original notions of science as a transnational enterprise.Indeed,the principal rationale for internationalizing science and for bringing it under the auspices of the United Nations in the first place was to free it from the meddling of self-interested (and presumably self-aggrandizing)states. Apart from the dangers of states exploiting scientific discoveries for military gain,state interference in science had long been understood to stifle scientific progress.Science was believed to proceed most efficiently and productively when left to scientists.Certainly this was the attitude of the League of Nations' International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation in the interwar period,and it continued to be the attitude of most scientists'professional organizations and of individual scientists active in international affairs.21 19.Details on the lobbying efforts of scientists for special recognition in the embryonic UNESCO can be found in James Sewell,UNESCO and World Politics (Princeton,N.J.:Princeton University Press,1975). 20.Conference for the Establishment of UNESCO,"Opening Address by the President of the Conference,the Rt.Honorable Ellen Wilkinson,MP,"Conference for the Establishment of UNESCO,London,1-16 November 1945 (Paris:UNESCO,1946),p.24. 21.Julian Huxley,the first executive director of UNESCO,and Joseph Needham,the first director of UNESCO's Natural Sciences Department,were instrumental in the founding of that organization and wrote extensively on their views of science as a transnational activity.See,for example,Julian Huxley,Unesco:Its Purpose and Its Philosophty (Washington,D.C.:Public AffairsUNESCO 577 of culture and therefore merited special recognition in the organization's mission and title had to be fought for by scientists and science promoters in government during the preliminary meetings and negotiations that took place in 1942-45. The fact that they succeeded in getting a piece of the new organization to serve their own interests was due in part to the organizational strength and coherence of the international science community and in part to their ability to influence world affairs, as had been demonstrated at Hiro￾shima.19 The combination of these two convinced the president of the conference charged with establishing the new organization to support addition of the word "Scientific" to the title with the following remarks: "In these days, when we are all wondering, perhaps apprehensively, what the scientists will do to us next, it is important that they should be linked closely with the humanities and should feel that they have a responsibility to mankind for the result of their labours."20 UNESCO's early science programs and organizational structure Giving science a titular role in the new interstate organization was a way of recognizing the importance of science to the state but did not, in those early years, entail state direction or control of scientific research. UNESCO's early science programs were designed to serve science and scientists rather than states. They aimed to increase the world sum of scientific knowledge and access to that knowledge without regard to national boundaries. The notion implicit in science policy, that science is a national resource to be developed by individual states, is very different from UNESCO's original notions of science as a transnational enterprise. Indeed, the principal rationale for internationalizing science and for bringing it under the auspices of the United Nations in the first place was to free it from the meddling of self-interested (and presumably self-aggrandizing) states. Apart from the dangers of states exploiting scientific discoveries for military gain, state interference in science had long been understood to stifle scientific progress. Science was believed to proceed most efficiently and productively when left to scientists. Certainly this was the attitude of the League of Nations' International Institute for Intellectual Cooperation in the interwar period, and it continued to be the attitude of most scientists' professional organizations and of individual scientists active in international affairs.21 19. Details on the lobbying efforts of scientists for special recognition in the embryonic UNESCO can be found in James Sewell, UNESCO and World Politics (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975). 20. Conference for the Establishment of UNESCO, "Opening Address by the President of the Conference, the Rt. Honorable Ellen Wilkinson, MP," Conference for the Establishment of UNESCO, London, 1-16 November 1945 (Paris: UNESCO, 1946), p. 24. 21. Julian Huxley, the first executive director of UNESCO, and Joseph Needham, the first director of UNESCO's Natural Sciences Department, were instrumental in the founding of that organization and wrote extensively on their views of science as a transnational activity. See, for example, Julian Huxley, Unesco: Its Purpose and Its Philosophy (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs