SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF HUMAN EMOTIONS 27 Dramaturgical theories also emphasize that individuals must manage emotional displays when social structures and the cultural script associated with these struc- tures generate discontinuity between what people feel and what they must ex- press to others in their audience. For instance, Hochschild's(1983, 1990), Thoits's (1990, 1991), and Rosenbergs(1990, 1991)respective approaches all stress that individuals are often caught in a conflict between the emotion ideologies, feeling rules, and display rules on the one side and their actual emotional experiences on the other. When discrepancies between feelings and feeling rules exist, the dis- crepancy generates a new kind of negative emotional arousal, above and beyond the emotions initially experienced. Thus, a person who feels sad in a situation demanding the expression of happiness may also become angry at having to ap- ar happy, thus ratcheting up the emotional intensity(sadness plus anger) and forcing this person to engage in even more expressive control to meet cultural Societies revealing high levels of structural differentiation, high rates of mobility across positions and roles, and mediation of social relations through markets are the st likely to generate discrepancies between actual feelings and the dictates of the emotion culture( Hochschild 1983). For example, market relations between sellers and buyers demand high levels of emotional management from sellers of goods and services; diverse subcultural affiliations can put individuals in cultural conflicts over how to display emotions; complex status-sets can place persons in emotional conflict; systems of authority arouse negative emotions in subordinates that must be controlled; or rigid rules in the name of efficiency and quality control often have the same effect as systems of authority for those who must obey these rules. These and many other situations systematically generated by differentiation and markets require individuals to engage in what Hochschild (1983)terms emotion work. Several theories list the emotion management strategies available to individuals caught in a situation in which they must engage in emotion work. Some of these are listed in Table In sum, dramaturgical theories emphasize the importance of culture in defining which emotions are to be experienced and expressed in situations. The emotion ulture constrains the actions of individuals on a stage in front of audiences, and yet individuals do have some degree of flexibility to engage in strategic actions. In fact, they often use emotionally laden expressive behavior in efforts to manipulate audiences about their sincerity and concern, to extract valued resources in games of microeconomics, or to gain power over others in games of micropolitics. Yet, lese same actors are often caught in a conflict between feeling ideologies and rules on the one side and their actual feelings on the other. As a result, they must engage in emotion-work strategies to reduce the degree of discrepancy between eelings and feeling rules. The generalizations that guide dramaturgical theorizing and research can thus be summarized as follows. 1. The more powerful that the emotion culture is in a situation, the more indi- viduals must engage in impression management of their emotions througl (a)expressive control of face, voice, and body and (b)use of physical props31 May 2006 17:32 AR ANRV280-SO32-02.tex XMLPublishSM(2004/02/24) P1: JRX SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF HUMAN EMOTIONS 27 Dramaturgical theories also emphasize that individuals must manage emotional displays when social structures and the cultural script associated with these struc￾tures generate discontinuity between what people feel and what they must ex￾press to others in their audience. For instance, Hochschild’s (1983, 1990), Thoits’s (1990, 1991), and Rosenberg’s (1990, 1991) respective approaches all stress that individuals are often caught in a conflict between the emotion ideologies, feeling rules, and display rules on the one side and their actual emotional experiences on the other. When discrepancies between feelings and feeling rules exist, the dis￾crepancy generates a new kind of negative emotional arousal, above and beyond the emotions initially experienced. Thus, a person who feels sad in a situation demanding the expression of happiness may also become angry at having to ap￾pear happy, thus ratcheting up the emotional intensity (sadness plus anger) and forcing this person to engage in even more expressive control to meet cultural expectations. Societies revealing high levels of structural differentiation, high rates of mobility across positions and roles, and mediation of social relations through markets are the most likely to generate discrepancies between actual feelings and the dictates of the emotion culture (Hochschild 1983). For example, market relations between sellers and buyers demand high levels of emotional management from sellers of goods and services; diverse subcultural affiliations can put individuals in cultural conflicts over how to display emotions; complex status-sets can place persons in emotional conflict; systems of authority arouse negative emotions in subordinates that must be controlled; or rigid rules in the name of efficiency and quality control often have the same effect as systems of authority for those who must obey these rules. These and many other situations systematically generated by differentiation and markets require individuals to engage in what Hochschild (1983) terms emotion work. Several theories list the emotion management strategies available to individuals caught in a situation in which they must engage in emotion work. Some of these are listed in Table 1. In sum, dramaturgical theories emphasize the importance of culture in defining which emotions are to be experienced and expressed in situations. The emotion culture constrains the actions of individuals on a stage in front of audiences, and yet individuals do have some degree of flexibility to engage in strategic actions. In fact, they often use emotionally laden expressive behavior in efforts to manipulate audiences about their sincerity and concern, to extract valued resources in games of microeconomics, or to gain power over others in games of micropolitics. Yet, these same actors are often caught in a conflict between feeling ideologies and rules on the one side and their actual feelings on the other. As a result, they must engage in emotion-work strategies to reduce the degree of discrepancy between feelings and feeling rules. The generalizations that guide dramaturgical theorizing and research can thus be summarized as follows: 1. The more powerful that the emotion culture is in a situation, the more indi￾viduals must engage in impression management of their emotions through (a) expressive control of face, voice, and body and (b) use of physical props. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 2006.32:25-52. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org by HARVARD UNIVERSITY on 11/14/07. For personal use only