TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Imes of sowing and harvesting of the wheat in Ireland an average yield of /y/ q/ha was ally dependent upon local climatic conditions; of 42-75 g/ha were general in other northwestern wheat is being harvested in some country in every European countries in the same year. However, month of the year. However, the storage facilities in more primitive agricultural communities in most wheat-growing countries are adequate to and in countries with less favourable climatic permit the best part of a years harvest being conditions, yields are still around 12 q/ha. The stored; thus, the British miller can buy wheat improvements in wheat yields since 1956/61 are from any exporting country at almost any time particularly striking in Europe(both Western and of the year. The times of harvest for the principal Eastern), China, and India/Pakistan(see Fig. 1. 2) wheat-growing countries are shown in Table 1. 2 Wheat yield also depends upon the type of heat sown: winter wheat(autumn-sown), with TABLE 1.2 a longer growing period than spring wheat Times of Wheat Harvest normally produces a higher yield than spring Country Harvest time 79). The yield of durum India wheat(cf. p. 79), which is grown in drier areas February is lower than that of bread wheat June-Jul The present yield of wheat in the U. K.(71 franc U.S.A q/ha in 1991)is over three times the pre-war figure May-September of 23 g/ha. In the U.S.A. yields have increased from 9 q/ha pre-war to 25 qha in 1987. The capacity for cereal production continues numa October-January to increase due to the use of higher-yielding November-Ja nary varieties, and by changes in husbandry. The ultimate aim of the grower is to obtain the Area, production, yield maximum yield of millable' wheat, just as it is of the plant breeder, even when he directs Between 1965 and 1989 the world wheat area his attention towards the breeding of varieties showed a small increase(215-227 M ha)while which are resistant to drought, frost and diseases wheat production doubled, from 261 to 537 Mt(Percival, 1921) per annum, reflecting the increase in world aver- Both the yield and the quality of the wheat age yield over the period, from 12 to 23.6 crop are affected by conditions of soil, climate g/ha. This increase has been due to the use of and farm management. The yield of flour obtain- more highly yielding varieties, the greater use of able from the wheat during milling is dependent fertilizers, and improved husbandry upon the degree of maturation- the extent to The area under wheat, the production, and the which individual grains are filled out with endo average yield in the principal wheat-producing sperm. Premature ripening, sometimes brought ountries and regions of the world, for four on by high temperatures prevailing in the later selected periods(1956/61, 1969/71, 1979/81 and part of the season, produces shrivelled grain 1986/88)are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. 2. which is of high protein content because relatively In the period 1986/88 the former Soviet Union more protein than starch is laid down in the and China each produced 18% of the world crop, endosperm during the early stages of ripening Western Europe 15. 3%, India/Pakistan 12%, the whereas the reverse holds during the later stages U.S.A. 11.2%, Eastern Europe 9. 1%, Canada 5% The effect of treatment with nitrogenous ferti urkey livers depends on the time of application and the The yield varies considerably among producing availability of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen taken countries and regions, and is related to the water up by the wheat plant early in growth results in supply and the intensity of cultivation. In 1990 increased tillering( see Ch 2)which can result in4 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Times of sowing and harvesting of the wheat in Ireland an average yield of 79.7 q/ha was crop in the various growing countries are natur- obtained, and 76.5 q/ha in the Netherlands; yields ally dependent upon local climatic conditions; of 42-75 q/ha were general in other northwestern wheat is being harvested in some country in every European countries in the same year. However, month of the year. However, the storage facilities in more primitive agricultural communities, in most wheat-growing countries are adequate to and in countries with less favourable climatic permit the best part of a year’s harvest being conditions, yields are still around 12 q/ha. The stored; thus, the British miller can buy wheat improvements in wheat yields since 1956/61 are from any exporting country at almost any time particularly striking in Europe (both Western and of the year. The times of harvest for the principal Eastern), China, and IndialPakistan (see Fig. 1.2). wheat-growing countries are shown in Table 1.2. Wheat yield also depends upon the type of wheat sown: winter wheat (autumn-sown), with TABLE 1.2 a longer growing period than spring wheat, normally produces a higher yield than spring￾Country sown wheat (cf. p. 79). The yield of durum wheat (cf. p. 79), which is grown in drier areas, is lower than that of bread wheat. India February The present yield of wheat in the U.K. (71 China May Italy June-July France June- July qiha in 1991) is over three times the pre-war figure of 23 q/ha. In the U.S.A., yields have increased U.S.A. May-September Former Soviet Union July-September Canada July-September from 9 q/ha pre-war to 25 qlha in 1987. England August-September The capacity for cereal production continues to increase due to the use of higher-yielding Australia October-January Argentina November- January varieties, and by changes in husbandry. The ultimate aim of the grower is to obtain the maximum yield of ‘millable’ wheat, just as it is of the plant breeder, even when he directs Area, production, yield Between 1965 and 1989 the world wheat area his attention towards the breeding of varieties showed a small increase (215-227 M ha) while which are resistant to drought, frost and diseases wheat production doubled, from 261 to 537 Mt (Percival, 1921). per annum, reflecting the increase in world aver- Both the yield and the quality of the wheat age yield over the period, from 12 to 23.6 crop are affected by conditions of soil, climate q/ha. This increase has been due to the use of and farm management. The yield of flour obtain￾more highly yielding varieties, the greater use of able from the wheat during milling is dependent fertilizers, and improved husbandry. upon the degree of maturation - the extent to The area under wheat, the production, and the which individual grains are filled out with endo￾average yield in the principal wheat-producing sperm. Premature ripening, sometimes brought countries and regions of the world, for four on by high temperatures prevailing in the later selected periods (1956/61, 1969/71, 1979/81 and part of the season, produces shrivelled grain, 1986/88) are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.2. which is of high protein content because relatively In the period 1986188 the former Soviet Union more protein than starch is laid down in the and China each produced 18% of the world crop, endosperm during the early stages of ripening, Western Europe 15.3%, IndiaPakistan 12%, the whereas the reverse holds during the later stages. U.S.A. 11.2%, Eastern Europe 9.1%, Canada 5% The effect of treatment with nitrogenous ferti￾and Turkey 4%. lizers depends on the time of application and the The yield varies considerably among producing availability of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen taken countries and regions, and is related to the water up by the wheat plant early in growth results in supply and the intensity of cultivation. In 1990 increased tillering (see Ch. 2) which can result in Times of Wheat Harvest Harvest time