Education and International Trade 475 ical life.26 In 1992,for the first time,the NES included a question that asked respondents about their attitudes toward international trade.The question was the following:"Some people have suggested placing new limits on foreign imports in order to protect American jobs.Others say that such limits would raise con- sumer prices and hurt American exports.Do you favor or oppose placing new limits on imports,or haven't you thought much about this?" Scheve and Slaughter used responses to this question from the 1992 NES sur- vey as their measure of individual trade policy preferences.27 We have replicated their approach here to conduct the split-sample test,while also examining data from the 1996 NES survey that included the same trade question.28 We created the dichotomous dependent variable TRADE OPINION,coded as 1 for responses that favored protection("new limits on foreign imports")and 0 for those opposed.The "haven't thought much about this"answers are coded as missing,as in the Scheve and Slaughter analysis. The principal measure of education is sCHOOLING,which simply records the years of full-time education completed by each respondent (a cap is set by the NES at seventeen years).This is the measure employed by Scheve and Slaugh- ter.To allow for nonlinear education effects,we have also constructed a set of dummy variables indicating each respondent's highest level of educational at- tainment:JUNIOR HIGH (1 =8 years of schooling;0 otherwise);HIGH SCHOOL (1 high school degree;0=otherwise);HIGHER EDUCATION (1 some years of post-high school education,including junior or community college;0=other- wise);CoLLEGE (1 four-year bachelor's degree;0 otherwise);and GRADU- ATE(1=postgraduate degree;0=otherwise).29 Assuming that education has linear effects on trade preferences seems appropriate if one assumes that each additional year of education (of any type)improves an individual's skills(and changes his or her attitudes)by a roughly constant amount.It is less appropriate if education has other,nonlinear types of effects associated with the ideas and information individuals possess about the way the economy works or the kinds of values and preferences they develop-as noted above,college education appears to play an overwhelming role in terms of its impact on ideas and cultural values among individuals. For different subsamples of respondents,we estimated binary probit models using TRADE OPINION as the dependent variable,testing for the effects of SCHOOLING or the different education dummy variables while controlling for a variety of other individual characteristics that might plausibly affect trade preferences.We esti- mated each model with two sets of covariates:a limited set of standard sociode- 26.For details,see Miller et al.1992;and Rosenstone et al.1996.For more on NES see (http:// www.umich.edu/-nes/).Accessed 10 January 2006. 27.Scheve and Slaughter 2001a. 28.Also examined in Scheve and Slaughter 2001b. 29.Note that there are too few respondents who failed to finish elementary school to allow us to estimate the separate effect of elementary-level education here:the excluded category in our analysis of education effects when using these dummy variables is all those with less than eight years of schooling.Education and International Trade 475 ical life.26 In 1992, for the first time, the NES included a question that asked respondents about their attitudes toward international trade. The question was the following: "Some people have suggested placing new limits on foreign imports in order to protect American jobs. Others say that such limits would raise con￾sumer prices and hurt American exports. Do you favor or oppose placing new limits on imports, or haven't you thought much about this?" Scheve and Slaughter used responses to this question from the 1992 NES sur￾vey as their measure of individual trade policy preferences.27 We have replicated their approach here to conduct the split-sample test, while also examining data from the 1996 NES survey that included the same trade question.28 We created the dichotomous dependent variable TRADE OPINION, coded as 1 for responses that favored protection ("new limits on foreign imports") and 0 for those opposed. The "haven't thought much about this" answers are coded as missing, as in the Scheve and Slaughter analysis. The principal measure of education is SCHOOLING, which simply records the years of full-time education completed by each respondent (a cap is set by the NES at seventeen years). This is the measure employed by Scheve and Slaugh￾ter. To allow for nonlinear education effects, we have also constructed a set of dummy variables indicating each respondent's highest level of educational at￾tainment: JUNIOR HIGH (1 = 8 years of schooling; 0 = otherwise); HIGH SCHOOL (1 = high school degree; 0 = otherwise); HIGHER EDUCATION (1 = some years of post-high school education, including junior or community college; 0 = other￾wise); COLLEGE (1 = four-year bachelor's degree; 0 = otherwise); and GRADU￾ATE (1 = postgraduate degree; 0 = otherwise).29 Assuming that education has linear effects on trade preferences seems appropriate if one assumes that each additional year of education (of any type) improves an individual's skills (and changes his or her attitudes) by a roughly constant amount. It is less appropriate if education has other, nonlinear types of effects associated with the ideas and information individuals possess about the way the economy works or the kinds of values and preferences they develop-as noted above, college education appears to play an overwhelming role in terms of its impact on ideas and cultural values among individuals. For different subsamples of respondents, we estimated binary probit models using TRADE OPINION as the dependent variable, testing for the effects of SCHOOLING or the different education dummy variables while controlling for a variety of other individual characteristics that might plausibly affect trade preferences. We esti￾mated each model with two sets of covariates: a limited set of standard sociode- 26. For details, see Miller et al. 1992; and Rosenstone et al. 1996. For more on NES see (http:// www.umich.edu/-nes/). Accessed 10 January 2006. 27. Scheve and Slaughter 2001a. 28. Also examined in Scheve and Slaughter 2001b. 29. Note that there are too few respondents who failed to finish elementary school to allow us to estimate the separate effect of elementary-level education here: the excluded category in our analysis of education effects when using these dummy variables is all those with less than eight years of schooling