Well-Being and Altruism 7 e-Level Subjective Well-Being and predicted altruistic donation and that this relationship dthe re Predictor variable unte B 40) for more than 25%of the regional variance in altruistic Well-being 2.42 Gini coefficient 0.20 -1.12 donation rates across the United States.Results showed hat the altruism sisted eve Median income 0.1 1.18 after we accounte 09 nd nh Median age 0.40 -3.36m mental health:these data reinforce the finding that it is Education specifically subjective well-being that promotes extraor- ment dinary altru m.The discovery well-being Poor physical heah 0.06 0.29 po n of in p05.p05 income and health status,respectively;positive change in objective leading causes of death in the united sta than 5.000 Americans die annually awaiting a kidney trans. in income and altruistic donation rates.Together.these plant (Matas et al.,2013).Increasing altruistic kidney data suggest that improvements in objective well-being donations has been posited as a viabl solution to this may in some cases result in impr wved subjective well. 2003E ham.Batty. g that promot rate of per capita altruistic donatior matched that of the ders the inverse causal pathwav hatahtuiic2hae most altruistic state (Utah),it could yield more than 900 donations increase regional well-being unlikely.It is additional donations annually and as many lives save more plausible th ooth well -being and altruistic dona Although researchers by external co at in todonate e.little is known about the antecedents of this donation among those individuals who are otherwise form of extraordinary altruism interested-such as poor health or poverty-drive We examined whether anges in both well-being and altruistic donation.We We d this pon eing covan Well-Being 0.43* 0.33 Improvement in Median Income Donation Rates 1999 Median Income 0.33 Sobel Test:Z 32,p<.001 ent on indicate significant paths（p<.05,“p<.o 当11,2014 Well-Being and Altruism 7 leading causes of death in the United States; more than 5,000 Americans die annually awaiting a kidney trans￾plant (Matas et al., 2013). Increasing altruistic kidney donations has been posited as a viable solution to this serious and growing problem (Gilbert, Brigham, Batty, & Veatch, 2005; Henderson et al., 2003). If the nationwide rate of per capita altruistic donation matched that of the most altruistic state (Utah), it could yield more than 900 additional donations annually and as many lives saved. Although researchers have identified retrospective self￾reported motives that affect individual donors’ decision to donate, little is known about the antecedents of this form of extraordinary altruism. We examined whether geographical differences in subjective well-being would predict the prevalence of altruistic kidney donation. We found that well-being predicted altruistic donation and that this relationship persisted at both the state and the regional level for altru￾istic donations during a single year (2010) and over the course of a decade (1999–2010). Well-being accounted for more than 25% of the regional variance in altruistic￾donation rates across the United States. Results showed that the altruism/well-being relationship persisted even after we accounted for objective state-level differences in income, income inequality, education, and physical and mental health; these data reinforce the finding that it is specifically subjective well-being that promotes extraor￾dinary altruism. The discovery that subjective well-being drives this effect was reinforced by the finding that posi￾tive changes in regional income and health status pre￾dicted altruistic donation after we controlled for baseline income and health status, respectively; positive changes in objective well-being are strong predictors of subjective well-being (Diener et al., 2013). Indeed, subjective well￾being mediated the relationship between positive changes in income and altruistic-donation rates. Together, these data suggest that improvements in objective well-being may in some cases result in improved subjective well￾being that promotes extraordinary altruism. The extreme rarity of altruistic kidney donation ren￾ders the inverse causal pathway—that altruistic kidney donations increase regional well-being—unlikely. It is more plausible that both well-being and altruistic dona￾tion are influenced by external covariates. One obvious possibility is that sociodemographic factors that impede donation among those individuals who are otherwise interested—such as poor health or poverty—drive changes in both well-being and altruistic donation. We addressed this possibility in our analyses by including these covariates in regression models. That accounting Table 3. 2010 State-Level Subjective Well-Being and 1999/2000 Sociodemographic Covariates as Predictors of Altruistic Organ Donation Between 1999 and 2010 Predictor variable β t(40) Well-being 0.50 2.42* Gini coefficienta –0.20 –1.12 Median income 0.17 1.18 Percentage non-Hispanic White 0.36 2.10* Male-to-female ratio –0.29 –1.94 Median age –0.40 –3.36*** Educational attainment –0.05 –0.16 Poor mental health 0.00 0.00 Poor physical health –0.06 –0.29 Note: Overall model: R2 = .59, F(9, 40) = 6.21, p < .001. a Smaller Gini coefficients represent more equal distribution of income. *p < .05. ***p < .005. Fig. 3. Mediation model showing the effect of improvement in median income on total donation rates as mediated by subjective well-being. Values are beta coefficients. For the association between improve￾ment in median income and total donation rates, the beta coefficient in parentheses represents the total effect of improvement on donation rates, whereas the second beta coefficient represents the indirect effect of improvement on donation rates, after we accounted for well-being as a mediator. Asterisks indicate significant paths (*p < .05, **p < .01). Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on February 11, 2014