Contents 7 Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? 83 Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point d6 allacies 85 A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning F ing fallaci Looking for Diversions 94 Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question 96 Summary of Reasoning Errors 97 Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies 99 Fallacies and Your Own Writing and Speaking 99 Practice Exercises 99 8 How Good Is the Evidence: Intuition, Personal Experience Testimonials, and appeals to authority? 103 The Need for Evidence 104 Locating Factual Claims 105 Sources of evidence 106 Intuition as Evidence 10 Dangers of Appealing to Personal Experience as Evidence 108 Personal Testimonials as evidence 109 Appeals to Authority as Evidence 110 Practice exercises 114 9 How Good ls the Evidence: Personal Observation . Research Studies, Case Examples, and Analogies? 117 Personal Observation 117 Research studies as Evidence 118 generalizing from the research Sample 123 Biased Surveys and Questionnaires 124 Critical Evaluation of a Research-Based Argument 126 Case Examples as Evidence 12 Analogies as Evidence 129 Summary 133 Practice Exercises 134 10 Are There Rival Causes? 137 When to look for rival causes 138 The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes 139Contents v Summary 79 Practice Exercises 79 7 Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning? 83 A Questioning Approach to Finding Reasoning Fallacies 85 Evaluating Assumptions as a Starting Point 86 Discovering Other Common Reasoning Fallacies 88 Looking for Diversions 94 Sleight of Hand: Begging the Question 96 Summary of Reasoning Errors 97 Expanding Your Knowledge of Fallacies 99 Fallacies and Your Own Writing and Speaking 99 Practice Exercises 99 8 How Good Is the Evidence: Intuition, Personal Experience, Testimonials, and Appeals to Authority? 103 The Need for Evidence 104 Locating Factual Claims 105 Sources of Evidence 106 Intuition as Evidence 107 Dangers of Appealing to Personal Experience as Evidence 108 Personal Testimonials as Evidence 109 Appeals to Authority as Evidence 110 Summary 113 Practice Exercises 114 9 How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation, Research Studies, Case Examples, and Analogies? 117 Personal Observation 117 Research Studies as Evidence 118 Generalizing from the Research Sample 123 Biased Surveys and Questionnaires 124 Critical Evaluation of a Research-Based Argument 126 Case Examples as Evidence 128 Analogies as Evidence 129 Summary 133 Practice Exercises 134 10 Are There Rival Causes? 137 When to Look for Rival Causes 138 The Pervasiveness of Rival Causes 139