triumph over Satan.To bring about that final victory,Calvin believed,God had selected certain people as his agents for ushering in his heavenly kingdom.These people,the saints or the Elect,had been "predestined" by God for eternal salvation in heaven.Calvin's emphasis on Predestination led him to another distinctively Protestant notion,the doctrine of calling.God expected his Elect to serve the good of society by unrelenting work in a"calling,"or occupation,in the world;in order to know whether a person belonged to the Elect,the person had to strive or behave like a saint.In place of the Catholic belief in the importance of good works, Calvin emphasized the goodness of work itself.In other words,the Catholic Church promoted the idea of buying one's way to heaven through good works whereas Calvin believed that success in attaining self-control and in bringing order into one's own life and entire society was the very revelation that the person might be among the Elect.Calvin called upon Christians to become activists,reshaping society and government to conform to God's laws laid down in the Bible.He wanted all of Europe to become like Geneva,the Swiss city that he had converted into a holy commonwealth where the Elect regulated the behavior and morals of everyone else. While the Reformation went forward in Europe,King Henry VIlI (1491-1547)of England was starving for a goal more modest than those of Luther and Calvin.He wanted only to produce a male heir to carry on the Tudor dynasty.When his wife,Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536),gave birth to a daughter,Mary Tudor (1516-1558),Henry decided to do something less modest.He set out to get his marriage with Catherine annulled by the Pope.Unfortunately,Rome was in the hands of the Spanish Emperor,Catherine's nephew,and the Pope dared do nothing to offend him.Out of the deadlock grew the English Reformation.At that time,there were popular grievances against the Roman Church in England:the immunity of the clergy from the king's justice,the vast expense of Papal taxation,the ostentatiously luxurious lives of many of the higher clergy,and the ignorance and vice common among ordinary priests and monks.Besides,leaders of Church opinion in England had themselves been clamoring for reform,and there was nothing heretical in demanding an overhaul of the financial and legal relations between the Church and state.When it soon became obvious that the Pope was merely dragging out the divorce negotiations in the hope that he could somehow avoid quarrelling either with Henry or the Spanish Emperor,Henry went ahead with the divorce and married his mistress,Anne Boleyn(1504-1536).In 1534,Henry VIlI widened his breach with Rome by establishing the Anglican Church,making himself,not the Pope,the head of the Church of England.When his new marriage produced only one daughter,Elizabeth Tudor(1533-1603),Henry had Boleyn beheaded on a trumped-up charge of treason in 1536.In 1537,Henry's third wife did give him a son,Edward Tudor (1537-1553),but died in doing so. When Henry VIlI got his divorce and the Roman Church's assets in England,he did not proceed with the reformation.The king and the parliament wanted the old Catholic faith under new Anglican rule.They killed some Protestants who attacked the faith,and killed some Catholics who attacked the new rule.When Henry died in 1547,England's Protestants gained ground during the six-year reign of Edward VI,but then found themselves persecuted when Edward's Catholic half-sister,Mary I,became queen in 1553. Frantically persecuting the Protestants,Queen Mary was to go down to history as Bloody Mary.She married Philip II(1528-1598)of Spain and restored Papal authority in England.Her Spanish marriage involved England in a Spanish war with France,in which,the port in northern France overlooking the narrowest point of the English Channel,was lost after being in English hands for 300 years.In 1558,Mary roused passionate opposition at home and died a bitter,disappointed woman.After her death,Elizabeth Tudor took the throne of England.Proclaiming herself the defender of Protestantism,Elizabeth I was no radical Calvinist although some of her subjects clamored for the English Church to purge itself of bishops, elaborate ceremonies,and other Roman Catholic tint.An exceptionally talented and intelligent young 4triumph over Satan. To bring about that final victory, Calvin believed, God had selected certain people as his agents for ushering in his heavenly kingdom. These people, the saints or the Elect, had been “predestined” by God for eternal salvation in heaven. Calvin’s emphasis on Predestination led him to another distinctively Protestant notion, the doctrine of calling. God expected his Elect to serve the good of society by unrelenting work in a “calling,” or occupation, in the world; in order to know whether a person belonged to the Elect, the person had to strive or behave like a saint. In place of the Catholic belief in the importance of good works, Calvin emphasized the goodness of work itself. In other words, the Catholic Church promoted the idea of buying one’s way to heaven through good works whereas Calvin believed that success in attaining self–control and in bringing order into one’s own life and entire society was the very revelation that the person might be among the Elect. Calvin called upon Christians to become activists, reshaping society and government to conform to God’s laws laid down in the Bible. He wanted all of Europe to become like Geneva, the Swiss city that he had converted into a holy commonwealth where the Elect regulated the behavior and morals of everyone else. While the Reformation went forward in Europe, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) of England was starving for a goal more modest than those of Luther and Calvin. He wanted only to produce a male heir to carry on the Tudor dynasty. When his wife, Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536), gave birth to a daughter, Mary Tudor (1516–1558), Henry decided to do something less modest. He set out to get his marriage with Catherine annulled by the Pope. Unfortunately, Rome was in the hands of the Spanish Emperor, Catherine’s nephew, and the Pope dared do nothing to offend him. Out of the deadlock grew the English Reformation. At that time, there were popular grievances against the Roman Church in England: the immunity of the clergy from the king’s justice, the vast expense of Papal taxation, the ostentatiously luxurious lives of many of the higher clergy, and the ignorance and vice common among ordinary priests and monks. Besides, leaders of Church opinion in England had themselves been clamoring for reform, and there was nothing heretical in demanding an overhaul of the financial and legal relations between the Church and state. When it soon became obvious that the Pope was merely dragging out the divorce negotiations in the hope that he could somehow avoid quarrelling either with Henry or the Spanish Emperor, Henry went ahead with the divorce and married his mistress, Anne Boleyn (1504–1536). In 1534, Henry VIII widened his breach with Rome by establishing the Anglican Church, making himself, not the Pope, the head of the Church of England. When his new marriage produced only one daughter, Elizabeth Tudor (1533–1603), Henry had Boleyn beheaded on a trumped–up charge of treason in 1536. In 1537, Henry’s third wife did give him a son, Edward Tudor (1537–1553), but died in doing so. When Henry VIII got his divorce and the Roman Church’s assets in England, he did not proceed with the reformation. The king and the parliament wanted the old Catholic faith under new Anglican rule. They killed some Protestants who attacked the faith, and killed some Catholics who attacked the new rule. When Henry died in 1547, England’s Protestants gained ground during the six–year reign of Edward VI, but then found themselves persecuted when Edward’s Catholic half–sister, Mary I, became queen in 1553. Frantically persecuting the Protestants, Queen Mary was to go down to history as Bloody Mary. She married Philip II (1528–1598) of Spain and restored Papal authority in England. Her Spanish marriage involved England in a Spanish war with France, in which, the port in northern France overlooking the narrowest point of the English Channel, was lost after being in English hands for 300 years. In 1558, Mary roused passionate opposition at home and died a bitter, disappointed woman. After her death, Elizabeth Tudor took the throne of England. Proclaiming herself the defender of Protestantism, Elizabeth I was no radical Calvinist although some of her subjects clamored for the English Church to purge itself of bishops, elaborate ceremonies, and other Roman Catholic tint. An exceptionally talented and intelligent young 4