1.2 Discovery of America(1492) Europeans'outward thrust began in the 10th century when Norse adventurers reached North America, but their colonies collapsed eventually.As a series of crusading armies after 1096 tried to wrest Palestine from Muslim control,European attention turned eastward.A brisk trade with the Middle East began and brought silks and spices to Europe.Marco Polo(1254-1324),the most famous Western traveler,and other 13th-century merchants had even traveled overland through the Silk Road to East Asia to buy directly from the Chinese.In the 14th century,Italian merchants grew rich from the spices and silk trade and used their fortunes to finance the Renaissance(1300-1650)and overseas expansion.In the mid-15th century,Europe experienced renewed prosperity and population growth.Competing for commercial advantage,the newly centralized European states projected their power overseas,and improved maritime technology permitted this European expansion.By that time,shipbuilders had added the triangular Arab sail to their heavy cargo ships.They created a highly maneuverable ship,the caravel,to sail the stormy Atlantic.Further,the growing use of the compass and astrolabe permitted mariners to calculate their bearings on the open sea.Hand in hand with the technological advances of this"maritime revolution,"Renaissance scholars corrected ancient geographical data and drew increasingly accurate maps,while new findings in astronomy and sophisticated use of Arabic mathematics sharpened Europeans'knowledge of the world. The Portuguese first felt the itch to explore new worlds.Their zeal for continuing the struggle against the Muslims,recently driven from Portugal,combined with an anxious search for new markets.In 1488,the Portuguese reached Africa's southern tip,the Cape of Good Hope,opening the possibility of direct trade with India.In 1498,Vasco da Gama(1469-1524)led a Portuguese fleet around the cape and on to India For more than a century,the Portuguese remained an imperial presence in the Indian Ocean and the East Indies,which later became modern Indonesia.But far more significantly,they brought Europeans face to face with black Africans and profited a great deal from the lucrative African slave trade.Europeans had used slaves since ancient Greece and Rome,but ominous changes took place in European slavery once the Portuguese began making voyages to Africa.By 1450,the Portuguese had created large slave-labor plantations on their Atlantic and Mediterranean islands.Race became the explicit basis of the slavery system. Africans'blackness and alien religion dehumanized them in European eyes.As racial prejudice hardened, Europeans found it easy to justify black slavery.Because the victims of the slavery system were physically distinctive and culturally alien,slavery became a lifelong hereditary and despised status. The fascinating,contradictory figure of Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)embodied European's varied motives for expansion.The son of a weaver from the Italian city of Genoa and an expert sailor, Columbus became obsessed with the idea that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic.Combining an overestimation of Asia's eastward thrust with an underestimation of the earth's circumference,he came to the conclusion that the world was small,and that the open-sea distance from Europe to Asia was roughly 3,000 miles,instead of the actual 12,000 miles.Religious fervor led Columbus to dream of carrying Christianity around the globe,but he also hungered for wealth and glory.Nevertheless, what distinguished Columbus was his persistence in hawking his "enterprise of the Indies"around Europe's royal courts and his final success with Spain.There was gold in Asia,Columbus persuaded the Spanish royalty,and certainly silks and spices:Marco Polo and others had brought back marvelous things from their overland expeditions centuries before.Now that the Turks who had conquered Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean had controlled the land routes to Asia,a sea route was needed.Eventually,as the Portuguese sailors were working their way around the southern tip of Africa,Spain decided to gamble on a long sail across an unknown ocean. In 1492,the rulers of newly united Spain,Isabella of Castile (1451-1504)and Ferdinand of Aragon 1
1.2 Discovery of America (1492) Europeans’ outward thrust began in the 10th century when Norse adventurers reached North America, but their colonies collapsed eventually. As a series of crusading armies after 1096 tried to wrest Palestine from Muslim control, European attention turned eastward. A brisk trade with the Middle East began and brought silks and spices to Europe. Marco Polo (1254–1324), the most famous Western traveler, and other 13th–century merchants had even traveled overland through the Silk Road to East Asia to buy directly from the Chinese. In the 14th century, Italian merchants grew rich from the spices and silk trade and used their fortunes to finance the Renaissance (1300–1650) and overseas expansion. In the mid–15th century, Europe experienced renewed prosperity and population growth. Competing for commercial advantage, the newly centralized European states projected their power overseas, and improved maritime technology permitted this European expansion. By that time, shipbuilders had added the triangular Arab sail to their heavy cargo ships. They created a highly maneuverable ship, the caravel, to sail the stormy Atlantic. Further, the growing use of the compass and astrolabe permitted mariners to calculate their bearings on the open sea. Hand in hand with the technological advances of this “maritime revolution,” Renaissance scholars corrected ancient geographical data and drew increasingly accurate maps, while new findings in astronomy and sophisticated use of Arabic mathematics sharpened Europeans’ knowledge of the world. The Portuguese first felt the itch to explore new worlds. Their zeal for continuing the struggle against the Muslims, recently driven from Portugal, combined with an anxious search for new markets. In 1488, the Portuguese reached Africa’s southern tip, the Cape of Good Hope, opening the possibility of direct trade with India. In 1498, Vasco da Gama (1469–1524) led a Portuguese fleet around the cape and on to India. For more than a century, the Portuguese remained an imperial presence in the Indian Ocean and the East Indies, which later became modern Indonesia. But far more significantly, they brought Europeans face to face with black Africans and profited a great deal from the lucrative African slave trade. Europeans had used slaves since ancient Greece and Rome, but ominous changes took place in European slavery once the Portuguese began making voyages to Africa. By 1450, the Portuguese had created large slave–labor plantations on their Atlantic and Mediterranean islands. Race became the explicit basis of the slavery system. Africans’ blackness and alien religion dehumanized them in European eyes. As racial prejudice hardened, Europeans found it easy to justify black slavery. Because the victims of the slavery system were physically distinctive and culturally alien, slavery became a lifelong hereditary and despised status. The fascinating, contradictory figure of Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) embodied European’s varied motives for expansion. The son of a weaver from the Italian city of Genoa and an expert sailor, Columbus became obsessed with the idea that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic. Combining an overestimation of Asia’s eastward thrust with an underestimation of the earth’s circumference, he came to the conclusion that the world was small, and that the open–sea distance from Europe to Asia was roughly 3,000 miles, instead of the actual 12,000 miles. Religious fervor led Columbus to dream of carrying Christianity around the globe, but he also hungered for wealth and glory. Nevertheless, what distinguished Columbus was his persistence in hawking his “enterprise of the Indies” around Europe’s royal courts and his final success with Spain. There was gold in Asia, Columbus persuaded the Spanish royalty, and certainly silks and spices; Marco Polo and others had brought back marvelous things from their overland expeditions centuries before. Now that the Turks who had conquered Constantinople and the eastern Mediterranean had controlled the land routes to Asia, a sea route was needed. Eventually, as the Portuguese sailors were working their way around the southern tip of Africa, Spain decided to gamble on a long sail across an unknown ocean. In 1492, the rulers of newly united Spain, Isabella of Castile (1451–1504) and Ferdinand of Aragon 1
(1452-1516),accepted Columbus's offer,hoping to break a threatening Portuguese monopoly on Asian trade. In return for bringing back gold and spices,they promised Columbus 10 percent of the profits,governorship over newfound lands,and the fame that would go with the new title of"Great Admiral of the Ocean." Columbus set out with three sailing ships,the largest of which was the Santa Maria,perhaps 100 feet long, and 39 crew members.He would never have made it to Asia,which was thousands of miles farther away than he had calculated,and would have been doomed by that great expanse of sea.But Columbus was lucky. One-fourth of the way there he came upon an unknown and uncharted land that lay between Europe and Asia.the Americas.On October 12.1492,one of his sailors caught sight of the early morning moon shining on white sands,and cried out "Tierra!Tierra!"It was an island in the Bahamas near Florida.When Columbus and his sailors came ashore,carrying swords,and speaking oddly,the Indians on the island,naked, tawny,and full of wonder,emerged from their villages onto the beach to greet them,brought them food, water,gifts.They did not bear arms,and did not even know them.When Columbus showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. Columbus's "discovery"of the Americas was certainly the most historically important,because he inaugurated permanent interaction between the Old World and the New.The Native Americans introduced Europeans to many new plants and foods,including beans,corn,tomatoes,tobacco,sweet and white potatoes.They also infected Europeans with syphilis for the first time.Europeans brought sugar cane, bluegrasses,and pigs,which all flourished in the new lands.Europeans also introduced them to armor, powerful steel swords,guns,and explosives.They had the horse,which gave them tremendous mobility and terrified the Indians,who had never seen such a fearsome beast.They had trained greyhounds that could chew the face off a man.The European most powerful gifts to the Native Americans were invisible killers they brought with themselves in their blood and breath,infectious diseases.Having been isolated from the rest of the world,the Indians had no immunity to European diseases such as smallpox,diphtheria,influenza, and cholera.Common childhood diseases like measles and mumps hit them with ferocious force.Smallpox alone could wipe out an entire tribe in one harrowing visitation,partly because it struck almost everyone at the same time,leaving no one to tend to the victims.Because of European diseases,the population of Native Americans decreased at a high speed,at one time with a mortality of 90 percent.It is no wonder that the invasion of North America has been called"the greatest demographic disaster in the history of the world." 1.5 The English Reformation(1534) The Renaissance(1300-1650)began in Italy in the 14th century,and soon spread all through Western Europe,beginning with the end of the Middle Ages (476-1453)and the commencement of modern civilization.With the Renaissance came advances in the arts,government,philosophy,and science.The arts ceased to be primarily religious,concerned with the heavenly world.Artists and their patrons began to display a growing interest in looking at life from a secular perspective.The most important music was now heard outside rather than inside the churches,and the great builders of the age now more frequently constructed palaces and town halls than cathedrals and monasteries.Just as philosophers began to emphasize the pagan Greek maxim"man is the measure of all things,"so did sculptors begin to portray the human form larger than life,dominating its surroundings.Painters started to depict the human face and form more realistically.They painted fewer pictures of eternity,heaven,and angels,and more pictures of the earth and the people on it.Thinkers and philosophers turned more and more from the religious concerns of the middle ages to the study of what was modern and scientific.They speculated,questioned,and argued with authorities and with tradition.The invention of scientific instruments such as the microscope in 1590 and the telescope in 1609 quickly inspired a new spirit of scientific enquiry.After Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) 2
(1452–1516), accepted Columbus’s offer, hoping to break a threatening Portuguese monopoly on Asian trade. In return for bringing back gold and spices, they promised Columbus 10 percent of the profits, governorship over newfound lands, and the fame that would go with the new title of “Great Admiral of the Ocean.” Columbus set out with three sailing ships, the largest of which was the Santa Maria, perhaps 100 feet long, and 39 crew members. He would never have made it to Asia, which was thousands of miles farther away than he had calculated, and would have been doomed by that great expanse of sea. But Columbus was lucky. One–fourth of the way there he came upon an unknown and uncharted land that lay between Europe and Asia, the Americas. On October 12, 1492, one of his sailors caught sight of the early morning moon shining on white sands, and cried out “Tierra! Tierra!” It was an island in the Bahamas near Florida. When Columbus and his sailors came ashore, carrying swords, and speaking oddly, the Indians on the island, naked, tawny, and full of wonder, emerged from their villages onto the beach to greet them, brought them food, water, gifts. They did not bear arms, and did not even know them. When Columbus showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. Columbus’s “discovery” of the Americas was certainly the most historically important, because he inaugurated permanent interaction between the Old World and the New. The Native Americans introduced Europeans to many new plants and foods, including beans, corn, tomatoes, tobacco, sweet and white potatoes. They also infected Europeans with syphilis for the first time. Europeans brought sugar cane, bluegrasses, and pigs, which all flourished in the new lands. Europeans also introduced them to armor, powerful steel swords, guns, and explosives. They had the horse, which gave them tremendous mobility and terrified the Indians, who had never seen such a fearsome beast. They had trained greyhounds that could chew the face off a man. The European most powerful gifts to the Native Americans were invisible killers they brought with themselves in their blood and breath, infectious diseases. Having been isolated from the rest of the world, the Indians had no immunity to European diseases such as smallpox, diphtheria, influenza, and cholera. Common childhood diseases like measles and mumps hit them with ferocious force. Smallpox alone could wipe out an entire tribe in one harrowing visitation, partly because it struck almost everyone at the same time, leaving no one to tend to the victims. Because of European diseases, the population of Native Americans decreased at a high speed, at one time with a mortality of 90 percent. It is no wonder that the invasion of North America has been called “the greatest demographic disaster in the history of the world.” 1.5 The English Reformation (1534) The Renaissance (1300–1650) began in Italy in the 14th century, and soon spread all through Western Europe, beginning with the end of the Middle Ages (476–1453) and the commencement of modern civilization. With the Renaissance came advances in the arts, government, philosophy, and science. The arts ceased to be primarily religious, concerned with the heavenly world. Artists and their patrons began to display a growing interest in looking at life from a secular perspective. The most important music was now heard outside rather than inside the churches, and the great builders of the age now more frequently constructed palaces and town halls than cathedrals and monasteries. Just as philosophers began to emphasize the pagan Greek maxim “man is the measure of all things,” so did sculptors begin to portray the human form larger than life, dominating its surroundings. Painters started to depict the human face and form more realistically. They painted fewer pictures of eternity, heaven, and angels, and more pictures of the earth and the people on it. Thinkers and philosophers turned more and more from the religious concerns of the middle ages to the study of what was modern and scientific. They speculated, questioned, and argued with authorities and with tradition. The invention of scientific instruments such as the microscope in 1590 and the telescope in 1609 quickly inspired a new spirit of scientific enquiry. After Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) 2
published On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres in 1543,large numbers of educated people finally ceased to believe that the earth was the center of the universe.Man now seemed increasingly capable of understanding and controlling his environment,of shaping his own life,even his destiny.Renewed study of ancient Greek and Hebrew literature inspired a new and critical interest in the Bible and a close scrutiny of its text.The new humanism and the critical spirit of the Renaissance in turn gave impetus to the Reformation; the religious revolution that dominated Western Europe in the 16th century brought the end of medieval Christianity and the rise of Protestantism. During the Middle Ages (476-1453),the Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religion in western Europe.Like other institutions of medieval society,the Catholic Church was a hierarchy.At the top was the Pope in Rome,and under him were the descending ranks of other church officials such as cardinals, archbishops,and bishops.At the bottom of the Catholic hierarchy were parish priests,each serving his own village,as well as monks and nuns living in monasteries and convents.Medieval Popes were weak,and their power felt little in the lives of most Europeans.In the 15th century,as the monarchs of Europe grew more powerful,so too did the Popes.The Catholic Church acquired land throughout Europe and added to its income by collecting tithing from church members.Church officials continued the 13th-century practice of selling "indulgences,"which promised to shorten the tormenting time of the believers in purgatory by supposedly drawing on a"treasury of merit"amassed by the good works of Christ and the saints.By then, the Catholic Church and the Papacy had become enormously powerful but increasingly indifferent to popular religious concerns.Popes and bishops flaunted their wealth,church officials meddled in secular politics, while poorly educated parish priests neglected their pastoral duties.At the same time,popular demands for religious assurance grew increasingly intense.The concern for salvation swelled in response to the disorienting changes sweeping the continent during the 15th and 16th centuries-the widening gulf between rich and poor,the rise in prices,and the colonization of America. Into this climate of heightened spirituality stepped Martin Luther (1483-1546),who advocated the religious movement of Protestantism concurring with the spirit of Renaissance in Europe.Like many contemporaries,Luther was consumed by fears over his eternal fate.Convinced that he was damned.he found no consolation in the Catholic Church.Catholic doctrine taught that a person could be saved by faith in God and by his own good works such as leading a virtuous life,observing the sacraments,making pilgrimages to holy places,and praying to Christ and the saints.Luther was convinced that God did not require fallen humankind to earn salvation.Salvation,he concluded,came by faith alone,the "free gift"of God to undeserving sinners.In 1513,Luther elaborated the idea of"justification by faith alone"and believed that the ability to live a good life would not be the cause of salvation but its consequence.Once men and women believed that they had saving faith,moral behavior was possible.In 1517,Martin Luther became increasingly critical of the Catholic Church as an institution.He posted 95 theses,in which he attacked the Catholic hierarchy for selling salvation in the form of indulgences and expressed the anxieties of so many devout laypeople and their outrage at the church hierarchy's neglect.When the Pope excommunicated him,Luther became more radical,advancing the idea of"the priesthood of all believers." He asserted that the Church and its officials were not infallible;only the Scriptures were without error.Every person should read and interpret the Bible for himself and obtain the power claimed by priests without the necessity of approaching God through the hierarchical church and its clergy. The most influential of Luther's successors was John Calvin (1509-1564),a French lawyer turned theologian.Calvin agreed with Luther that men and women could not merit their salvation.But while Luther's God was a loving deity who extended his mercy to sinful humankind,Calvin conceived of God as an awesome sovereign,omniscient and omnipotent controlling force in human history that would ultimately 3
published On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres in 1543, large numbers of educated people finally ceased to believe that the earth was the center of the universe. Man now seemed increasingly capable of understanding and controlling his environment, of shaping his own life, even his destiny. Renewed study of ancient Greek and Hebrew literature inspired a new and critical interest in the Bible and a close scrutiny of its text. The new humanism and the critical spirit of the Renaissance in turn gave impetus to the Reformation; the religious revolution that dominated Western Europe in the 16th century brought the end of medieval Christianity and the rise of Protestantism. During the Middle Ages (476–1453), the Roman Catholic Church was the dominant religion in western Europe. Like other institutions of medieval society, the Catholic Church was a hierarchy. At the top was the Pope in Rome, and under him were the descending ranks of other church officials such as cardinals, archbishops, and bishops. At the bottom of the Catholic hierarchy were parish priests, each serving his own village, as well as monks and nuns living in monasteries and convents. Medieval Popes were weak, and their power felt little in the lives of most Europeans. In the 15th century, as the monarchs of Europe grew more powerful, so too did the Popes. The Catholic Church acquired land throughout Europe and added to its income by collecting tithing from church members. Church officials continued the 13th–century practice of selling “indulgences,” which promised to shorten the tormenting time of the believers in purgatory by supposedly drawing on a “treasury of merit” amassed by the good works of Christ and the saints. By then, the Catholic Church and the Papacy had become enormously powerful but increasingly indifferent to popular religious concerns. Popes and bishops flaunted their wealth, church officials meddled in secular politics, while poorly educated parish priests neglected their pastoral duties. At the same time, popular demands for religious assurance grew increasingly intense. The concern for salvation swelled in response to the disorienting changes sweeping the continent during the 15th and 16th centuries — the widening gulf between rich and poor, the rise in prices, and the colonization of America. Into this climate of heightened spirituality stepped Martin Luther (1483–1546), who advocated the religious movement of Protestantism concurring with the spirit of Renaissance in Europe. Like many contemporaries, Luther was consumed by fears over his eternal fate. Convinced that he was damned, he found no consolation in the Catholic Church. Catholic doctrine taught that a person could be saved by faith in God and by his own good works such as leading a virtuous life, observing the sacraments, making pilgrimages to holy places, and praying to Christ and the saints. Luther was convinced that God did not require fallen humankind to earn salvation. Salvation, he concluded, came by faith alone, the “free gift” of God to undeserving sinners. In 1513, Luther elaborated the idea of “justification by faith alone” and believed that the ability to live a good life would not be the cause of salvation but its consequence. Once men and women believed that they had saving faith, moral behavior was possible. In 1517, Martin Luther became increasingly critical of the Catholic Church as an institution. He posted 95 theses, in which he attacked the Catholic hierarchy for selling salvation in the form of indulgences and expressed the anxieties of so many devout laypeople and their outrage at the church hierarchy’s neglect. When the Pope excommunicated him, Luther became more radical, advancing the idea of “the priesthood of all believers.” He asserted that the Church and its officials were not infallible; only the Scriptures were without error. Every person should read and interpret the Bible for himself and obtain the power claimed by priests without the necessity of approaching God through the hierarchical church and its clergy. The most influential of Luther’s successors was John Calvin (1509–1564), a French lawyer turned theologian. Calvin agreed with Luther that men and women could not merit their salvation. But while Luther’s God was a loving deity who extended his mercy to sinful humankind, Calvin conceived of God as an awesome sovereign, omniscient and omnipotent controlling force in human history that would ultimately 3
triumph over Satan.To bring about that final victory,Calvin believed,God had selected certain people as his agents for ushering in his heavenly kingdom.These people,the saints or the Elect,had been "predestined" by God for eternal salvation in heaven.Calvin's emphasis on Predestination led him to another distinctively Protestant notion,the doctrine of calling.God expected his Elect to serve the good of society by unrelenting work in a"calling,"or occupation,in the world;in order to know whether a person belonged to the Elect,the person had to strive or behave like a saint.In place of the Catholic belief in the importance of good works, Calvin emphasized the goodness of work itself.In other words,the Catholic Church promoted the idea of buying one's way to heaven through good works whereas Calvin believed that success in attaining self-control and in bringing order into one's own life and entire society was the very revelation that the person might be among the Elect.Calvin called upon Christians to become activists,reshaping society and government to conform to God's laws laid down in the Bible.He wanted all of Europe to become like Geneva,the Swiss city that he had converted into a holy commonwealth where the Elect regulated the behavior and morals of everyone else. While the Reformation went forward in Europe,King Henry VIlI (1491-1547)of England was starving for a goal more modest than those of Luther and Calvin.He wanted only to produce a male heir to carry on the Tudor dynasty.When his wife,Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536),gave birth to a daughter,Mary Tudor (1516-1558),Henry decided to do something less modest.He set out to get his marriage with Catherine annulled by the Pope.Unfortunately,Rome was in the hands of the Spanish Emperor,Catherine's nephew,and the Pope dared do nothing to offend him.Out of the deadlock grew the English Reformation.At that time,there were popular grievances against the Roman Church in England:the immunity of the clergy from the king's justice,the vast expense of Papal taxation,the ostentatiously luxurious lives of many of the higher clergy,and the ignorance and vice common among ordinary priests and monks.Besides,leaders of Church opinion in England had themselves been clamoring for reform,and there was nothing heretical in demanding an overhaul of the financial and legal relations between the Church and state.When it soon became obvious that the Pope was merely dragging out the divorce negotiations in the hope that he could somehow avoid quarrelling either with Henry or the Spanish Emperor,Henry went ahead with the divorce and married his mistress,Anne Boleyn(1504-1536).In 1534,Henry VIlI widened his breach with Rome by establishing the Anglican Church,making himself,not the Pope,the head of the Church of England.When his new marriage produced only one daughter,Elizabeth Tudor(1533-1603),Henry had Boleyn beheaded on a trumped-up charge of treason in 1536.In 1537,Henry's third wife did give him a son,Edward Tudor (1537-1553),but died in doing so. When Henry VIlI got his divorce and the Roman Church's assets in England,he did not proceed with the reformation.The king and the parliament wanted the old Catholic faith under new Anglican rule.They killed some Protestants who attacked the faith,and killed some Catholics who attacked the new rule.When Henry died in 1547,England's Protestants gained ground during the six-year reign of Edward VI,but then found themselves persecuted when Edward's Catholic half-sister,Mary I,became queen in 1553. Frantically persecuting the Protestants,Queen Mary was to go down to history as Bloody Mary.She married Philip II(1528-1598)of Spain and restored Papal authority in England.Her Spanish marriage involved England in a Spanish war with France,in which,the port in northern France overlooking the narrowest point of the English Channel,was lost after being in English hands for 300 years.In 1558,Mary roused passionate opposition at home and died a bitter,disappointed woman.After her death,Elizabeth Tudor took the throne of England.Proclaiming herself the defender of Protestantism,Elizabeth I was no radical Calvinist although some of her subjects clamored for the English Church to purge itself of bishops, elaborate ceremonies,and other Roman Catholic tint.An exceptionally talented and intelligent young 4
triumph over Satan. To bring about that final victory, Calvin believed, God had selected certain people as his agents for ushering in his heavenly kingdom. These people, the saints or the Elect, had been “predestined” by God for eternal salvation in heaven. Calvin’s emphasis on Predestination led him to another distinctively Protestant notion, the doctrine of calling. God expected his Elect to serve the good of society by unrelenting work in a “calling,” or occupation, in the world; in order to know whether a person belonged to the Elect, the person had to strive or behave like a saint. In place of the Catholic belief in the importance of good works, Calvin emphasized the goodness of work itself. In other words, the Catholic Church promoted the idea of buying one’s way to heaven through good works whereas Calvin believed that success in attaining self–control and in bringing order into one’s own life and entire society was the very revelation that the person might be among the Elect. Calvin called upon Christians to become activists, reshaping society and government to conform to God’s laws laid down in the Bible. He wanted all of Europe to become like Geneva, the Swiss city that he had converted into a holy commonwealth where the Elect regulated the behavior and morals of everyone else. While the Reformation went forward in Europe, King Henry VIII (1491–1547) of England was starving for a goal more modest than those of Luther and Calvin. He wanted only to produce a male heir to carry on the Tudor dynasty. When his wife, Catherine of Aragon (1485–1536), gave birth to a daughter, Mary Tudor (1516–1558), Henry decided to do something less modest. He set out to get his marriage with Catherine annulled by the Pope. Unfortunately, Rome was in the hands of the Spanish Emperor, Catherine’s nephew, and the Pope dared do nothing to offend him. Out of the deadlock grew the English Reformation. At that time, there were popular grievances against the Roman Church in England: the immunity of the clergy from the king’s justice, the vast expense of Papal taxation, the ostentatiously luxurious lives of many of the higher clergy, and the ignorance and vice common among ordinary priests and monks. Besides, leaders of Church opinion in England had themselves been clamoring for reform, and there was nothing heretical in demanding an overhaul of the financial and legal relations between the Church and state. When it soon became obvious that the Pope was merely dragging out the divorce negotiations in the hope that he could somehow avoid quarrelling either with Henry or the Spanish Emperor, Henry went ahead with the divorce and married his mistress, Anne Boleyn (1504–1536). In 1534, Henry VIII widened his breach with Rome by establishing the Anglican Church, making himself, not the Pope, the head of the Church of England. When his new marriage produced only one daughter, Elizabeth Tudor (1533–1603), Henry had Boleyn beheaded on a trumped–up charge of treason in 1536. In 1537, Henry’s third wife did give him a son, Edward Tudor (1537–1553), but died in doing so. When Henry VIII got his divorce and the Roman Church’s assets in England, he did not proceed with the reformation. The king and the parliament wanted the old Catholic faith under new Anglican rule. They killed some Protestants who attacked the faith, and killed some Catholics who attacked the new rule. When Henry died in 1547, England’s Protestants gained ground during the six–year reign of Edward VI, but then found themselves persecuted when Edward’s Catholic half–sister, Mary I, became queen in 1553. Frantically persecuting the Protestants, Queen Mary was to go down to history as Bloody Mary. She married Philip II (1528–1598) of Spain and restored Papal authority in England. Her Spanish marriage involved England in a Spanish war with France, in which, the port in northern France overlooking the narrowest point of the English Channel, was lost after being in English hands for 300 years. In 1558, Mary roused passionate opposition at home and died a bitter, disappointed woman. After her death, Elizabeth Tudor took the throne of England. Proclaiming herself the defender of Protestantism, Elizabeth I was no radical Calvinist although some of her subjects clamored for the English Church to purge itself of bishops, elaborate ceremonies, and other Roman Catholic tint. An exceptionally talented and intelligent young 4
woman,Queen Elizabeth was autocratic,eccentric,and entirely self-confident,with the sharpest tongue in the kingdom.It was under her that Great Britain rejuvenated economically and politically and commenced its official efforts of exploring America. 第一章发现新大陆 1.2发现美洲（1492) 公元十世纪，当北欧探险家到达北美洲时，欧洲人向外部探险的动力便产生了。然而， 他们在北美的探险最终没能持续下去。自1096年以后，基督教发动了一系列十字军东征试 图使巴勒斯坦摆脱伊斯兰教的控制时，欧洲人的注意力也便随之转向了东方。于是，欧洲与 中东地区的贸易活动开始繁荣起来，并给欧洲各国带来了丝绸和香料。13世纪时，西方最 负盛名的旅行家马可·波罗(Marco Polo,1254年一1324年)与其他商人一道，不远万里， 爬山涉水，穿过丝绸之路，来到亚洲东部，直接从中国人手中购买丝绸和香料。到14世纪 时，意大利商人通过丝绸和香料贸易已经赚了一大笔财富，并且用一部分贸易所得来资助文 艺复兴运动(1300一1650)和海外扩张活动。15世纪中期，欧洲经济经历了又一次的经济 繁荣和人口增长。为了争夺商业优势，新兴的集权制欧洲国家把他们的势力投向了海外，而 改进了的航海技术也使欧洲的海外扩张成为可能。当时，欧洲造船匠人已经把阿拉伯人的三 角帆装备到沉重的货物船上，同时制造了一种轻便的帆船，这种船不仅灵活机动，而且可以 在风暴频仍的大西洋上航行。此外，指南针和罗盘日益广泛的使用，使得水手可以在海上测 量他们的方位。在航海家提高“航海革命技术的同时，文艺复兴学者也在积极修正古代的地 理数据，制作了更为精确的地图。天文学上的新发现和人们对阿拉伯数学的熟练使用也帮助 欧洲人获得了对地球更加丰富和敏锐的认识。 在新兴的欧洲集权国家中，葡萄牙最早产生了探索新世界的愿望。葡萄牙人虽然刚把伊 斯兰教赶出葡萄牙，但他们反对穆斯林的热情不但没有减弱，反而刺激了他们想开发海外市 场的欲望。1488年，葡萄牙人巴·缪·迪亚士(Bartholmeu Dias,约1450一1500)到达非洲南 端的好望角，开辟了与印度直接贸易的航线。1498年，瓦斯科达伽马(Vasco da Gama, 1469一1524)带领着一支葡萄牙舰队绕过好望角，并抵达印度。在后来的一个多世纪，葡萄 牙人一直在印度洋地区和后来发展成为现代印度尼西亚的东印度群岛有着重要影响。不过， 与这一点相比，影响更为深远的是，葡萄牙人把非洲黑人带到了欧洲，并从黑人奴隶贸易中 获得了巨额利润。自古代的希腊和罗马时代以来，欧洲人就一直使用奴隶。但是，葡萄牙人 开始他们的非洲航程以后，欧洲的奴隶制开始变得更加残酷无情。葡萄牙人在大西洋地区和 地中海诸岛上开辟了大面积的剥削奴隶劳动的种植园，种族歧视成了奴隶制最明白无误的基 础。在欧洲人眼里，非洲人的黑皮肤和他们的奇特宗教早就决定了他们低人一等的身份。随 着这种族歧视观念的深入，欧洲人轻而易举就可以为他们的黑人奴隶制找到合适的理由。由 于这一奴隶制的受害者身体上有明显的烙印，文化上又与欧洲人迥异，所以奴隶们这种受人 欺凌、遭人鄙视的地位也就变成了一种代代相传的东西。 克里斯托弗·哥伦布(Christopher Columbus,1451一l506)是一个传奇式的矛盾人物，他 5
woman, Queen Elizabeth was autocratic, eccentric, and entirely self–confident, with the sharpest tongue in the kingdom. It was under her that Great Britain rejuvenated economically and politically and commenced its official efforts of exploring America. 第一章 发现新大陆 1.2 发现美洲（1492） 公元十世纪，当北欧探险家到达北美洲时，欧洲人向外部探险的动力便产生了。然而， 他们在北美的探险最终没能持续下去。自 1096 年以后，基督教发动了一系列十字军东征试 图使巴勒斯坦摆脱伊斯兰教的控制时，欧洲人的注意力也便随之转向了东方。于是，欧洲与 中东地区的贸易活动开始繁荣起来，并给欧洲各国带来了丝绸和香料。13 世纪时，西方最 负盛名的旅行家马可·波罗（Marco Polo，1254 年—1324 年）与其他商人一道，不远万里， 爬山涉水，穿过丝绸之路，来到亚洲东部，直接从中国人手中购买丝绸和香料。到 14 世纪 时，意大利商人通过丝绸和香料贸易已经赚了一大笔财富，并且用一部分贸易所得来资助文 艺复兴运动（1300—1650）和海外扩张活动。15 世纪中期，欧洲经济经历了又一次的经济 繁荣和人口增长。为了争夺商业优势，新兴的集权制欧洲国家把他们的势力投向了海外，而 改进了的航海技术也使欧洲的海外扩张成为可能。当时，欧洲造船匠人已经把阿拉伯人的三 角帆装备到沉重的货物船上，同时制造了一种轻便的帆船，这种船不仅灵活机动，而且可以 在风暴频仍的大西洋上航行。此外，指南针和罗盘日益广泛的使用，使得水手可以在海上测 量他们的方位。在航海家提高“航海革命”技术的同时，文艺复兴学者也在积极修正古代的地 理数据，制作了更为精确的地图。天文学上的新发现和人们对阿拉伯数学的熟练使用也帮助 欧洲人获得了对地球更加丰富和敏锐的认识。 在新兴的欧洲集权国家中，葡萄牙最早产生了探索新世界的愿望。葡萄牙人虽然刚把伊 斯兰教赶出葡萄牙，但他们反对穆斯林的热情不但没有减弱，反而刺激了他们想开发海外市 场的欲望。1488 年，葡萄牙人巴·缪·迪亚士（Bartholmeu Dias，约 1450—1500）到达非洲南 端的好望角，开辟了与印度直接贸易的航线。1498 年，瓦斯科·达·伽马（Vasco da Gama， 1469—1524）带领着一支葡萄牙舰队绕过好望角，并抵达印度。在后来的一个多世纪，葡萄 牙人一直在印度洋地区和后来发展成为现代印度尼西亚的东印度群岛有着重要影响。不过， 与这一点相比，影响更为深远的是，葡萄牙人把非洲黑人带到了欧洲，并从黑人奴隶贸易中 获得了巨额利润。自古代的希腊和罗马时代以来，欧洲人就一直使用奴隶。但是，葡萄牙人 开始他们的非洲航程以后，欧洲的奴隶制开始变得更加残酷无情。葡萄牙人在大西洋地区和 地中海诸岛上开辟了大面积的剥削奴隶劳动的种植园，种族歧视成了奴隶制最明白无误的基 础。在欧洲人眼里，非洲人的黑皮肤和他们的奇特宗教早就决定了他们低人一等的身份。随 着这种族歧视观念的深入，欧洲人轻而易举就可以为他们的黑人奴隶制找到合适的理由。由 于这一奴隶制的受害者身体上有明显的烙印，文化上又与欧洲人迥异，所以奴隶们这种受人 欺凌、遭人鄙视的地位也就变成了一种代代相传的东西。 克里斯托弗·哥伦布（Christopher Columbus，1451—1506）是一个传奇式的矛盾人物，他 5
的经历体现了欧洲人对外扩张的种种动机。哥伦布是意大利热那亚城(Genoa)一个织工的 儿子，他后来成为一名航海专家，痴迷于穿越大西洋并一直往西航行到达亚洲的想法。不过， 他对向东航行驶向亚洲的可能性估计过高，而对地球的大小及周长估计过低。他得出一个结 论，认为世界很小，从欧洲到亚洲的公海距离大概是3,000英里，孰不知两者之间的距离实 际上是12,000英里。宗教的狂热使哥伦布头脑发热，梦想把基督教的福音带到全世界：与 此同时，他又非常渴望获得财富与荣耀。然而，真正使哥伦布脱颖而出的是，他在欧洲皇宫 里坚持不懈地兜售其“与东印度群岛进行贸易往来”的理论，直到他最终说服西班牙女王。他 使西班牙王室相信，亚洲除了丝绸和香料之外还有数不清的黄金和珠宝。数个世纪以前，马 可·波罗和其他旅行家从他们的陆路远征中就己经带回来精妙绝伦的物品。现在，土耳其人 征服了君士坦丁堡，而地中海东岸的阿拉伯人控制了通往亚洲的陆地航线，那么西班牙人要 想去亚洲寻找财富，就必须在大海上开辟出自己的航线。既然葡萄牙航海家已经控制了绕过 非洲南端到达亚洲的航线，西班牙政府决定把赌注压在穿越大西洋这片未知海域的远航探险 上。 1492年，新统一的西班牙的统治者，卡斯提尔的伊莎贝拉(Isabella of Castile,1451一1504) 和阿拉贡的斐迪南(Ferdinand of Aragon,1452一l5l6),采纳了哥伦布的提议，决定向西 探险到达亚洲的航线，希望能打破葡萄牙在亚洲贸易中频具威胁性的垄断地位。如果哥伦布 能带回黄金和香料，西班牙承诺将给他10%的利润，并任命他为新大陆的总督。哥伦布被 西班牙政府授予“海洋舰队司令”的头衔后，便率领三艘大船出发了，其中最大的一艘约100 英尺长，取名“圣玛丽亚”号，上面有39名船员。哥伦布本来是永远也到达不了亚洲的，因 为他所估算的航程比实际距离差了数千英里。但幸运的是，他没有葬身于广袤无垠的大洋之 中。在他航行至离目标还有四分之三路程的时候，他到达一个在旧地图上从来没有标记的陌 生大陆。1492年10月12日，一名海员望见了清晨月光下的一片白色沙滩，大声叫了起来， 陆地(Tierra)!陆地！”那正是佛罗里达附近的巴哈马群岛。船只靠岸后，哥伦布和他的船 员们拿着刀剑上了岸。他们发现一群说着古怪方言、皮肤呈茶褐色、全身赤裸的印第安人。 印第安人对他们充满了好奇，从各个村庄涌向海滩来，赠给他们食物、水和各种礼品。这些 土著人没有武器。他们甚至对武器这个概念也一无所知。因此，当哥伦布给他们看自己的剑 时，有人竞然用手去接剑刃，结果割伤了手指。 哥伦布发现新大陆无疑是历史上最重要的事件之一。他在新旧两个世界之间首次建立了 永久性的联系。美洲土著人给欧洲人介绍了很多新的植物品种，如大豆、玉米、西红柿、烟 草和甜薯，但他们同时也首次给欧洲人染上了梅毒。欧洲人给美洲带来的甘蔗、蓝草和猪等 动植物在这片新大陆上茁壮生长，但欧洲人也把坚硬的盔甲和威力强大的刀剑、枪支和炸药 等东西介绍给了印第安人。他们还带来了灰狗和马匹。能撕下人面皮的凶猛灰狗和给人以巨 大活动性的马匹这两种怪物吓坏了印第安人。欧洲人给美洲土著人带来的最具毁灭性的隐形 杀手是他们携带在自身血液和呼吸中的传染病。由于与旧大陆长期隔绝，印第安人对于欧洲 的天花、白喉、流感和霍乱等传染病毫无免疫力。即使像麻疹、腮腺炎等常见的儿童疾病都 可能会给他们造成巨大的伤害。天花的一次降临便可能会把一个印第安部落从地球上整个儿 抹去，因为它会同时袭击几乎每一个人，不会留下什么人来照顾病人。由于欧洲人带来的种 种疾病，美洲土著人口的数量以惊人的速度下降，死亡率高达90%。因此，哥伦布发现新 大陆被称为“世界历史上人口统计学的最大灾难”也就不足为奇了。 1.5英国宗教改革(1534) 文艺复兴(Renaissance,1300一1650)始于十四世纪的意大利，不久便迅速遍及整个西 欧，宣告着中世纪(Middle Ages,476一1453)的结束和现代文明的肇始，同时带来了世界 艺术、政体、哲学和科学上的进步。此时，艺术要展现的不再限于充满着宗教意味的神圣世 6
的经历体现了欧洲人对外扩张的种种动机。哥伦布是意大利热那亚城（Genoa）一个织工的 儿子，他后来成为一名航海专家，痴迷于穿越大西洋并一直往西航行到达亚洲的想法。不过， 他对向东航行驶向亚洲的可能性估计过高，而对地球的大小及周长估计过低。他得出一个结 论，认为世界很小，从欧洲到亚洲的公海距离大概是 3,000 英里，孰不知两者之间的距离实 际上是 12,000 英里。宗教的狂热使哥伦布头脑发热，梦想把基督教的福音带到全世界；与 此同时，他又非常渴望获得财富与荣耀。然而，真正使哥伦布脱颖而出的是，他在欧洲皇宫 里坚持不懈地兜售其“与东印度群岛进行贸易往来”的理论，直到他最终说服西班牙女王。他 使西班牙王室相信，亚洲除了丝绸和香料之外还有数不清的黄金和珠宝。数个世纪以前，马 可﹒波罗和其他旅行家从他们的陆路远征中就已经带回来精妙绝伦的物品。现在，土耳其人 征服了君士坦丁堡，而地中海东岸的阿拉伯人控制了通往亚洲的陆地航线，那么西班牙人要 想去亚洲寻找财富，就必须在大海上开辟出自己的航线。既然葡萄牙航海家已经控制了绕过 非洲南端到达亚洲的航线，西班牙政府决定把赌注压在穿越大西洋这片未知海域的远航探险 上。 1492 年，新统一的西班牙的统治者，卡斯提尔的伊莎贝拉（Isabella of Castile，1451—1504） 和阿拉贡的斐迪南（Ferdinand of Aragon，1452–––1516），采纳了哥伦布的提议，决定向西 探险到达亚洲的航线，希望能打破葡萄牙在亚洲贸易中颇具威胁性的垄断地位。如果哥伦布 能带回黄金和香料，西班牙承诺将给他 10%的利润，并任命他为新大陆的总督。哥伦布被 西班牙政府授予“海洋舰队司令”的头衔后，便率领三艘大船出发了，其中最大的一艘约 100 英尺长，取名“圣玛丽亚”号，上面有 39 名船员。哥伦布本来是永远也到达不了亚洲的，因 为他所估算的航程比实际距离差了数千英里。但幸运的是，他没有葬身于广袤无垠的大洋之 中。在他航行至离目标还有四分之三路程的时候，他到达一个在旧地图上从来没有标记的陌 生大陆。1492 年 10 月 12 日，一名海员望见了清晨月光下的一片白色沙滩，大声叫了起来， “陆地（Tierra）！陆地！”那正是佛罗里达附近的巴哈马群岛。船只靠岸后，哥伦布和他的船 员们拿着刀剑上了岸。他们发现一群说着古怪方言、皮肤呈茶褐色、全身赤裸的印第安人。 印第安人对他们充满了好奇，从各个村庄涌向海滩来，赠给他们食物、水和各种礼品。这些 土著人没有武器。他们甚至对武器这个概念也一无所知。因此，当哥伦布给他们看自己的剑 时，有人竟然用手去接剑刃，结果割伤了手指。 哥伦布发现新大陆无疑是历史上最重要的事件之一。他在新旧两个世界之间首次建立了 永久性的联系。美洲土著人给欧洲人介绍了很多新的植物品种，如大豆、玉米、西红柿、烟 草和甜薯，但他们同时也首次给欧洲人染上了梅毒。欧洲人给美洲带来的甘蔗、蓝草和猪等 动植物在这片新大陆上茁壮生长，但欧洲人也把坚硬的盔甲和威力强大的刀剑、枪支和炸药 等东西介绍给了印第安人。他们还带来了灰狗和马匹。能撕下人面皮的凶猛灰狗和给人以巨 大活动性的马匹这两种怪物吓坏了印第安人。欧洲人给美洲土著人带来的最具毁灭性的隐形 杀手是他们携带在自身血液和呼吸中的传染病。由于与旧大陆长期隔绝，印第安人对于欧洲 的天花、白喉、流感和霍乱等传染病毫无免疫力。即使像麻疹、腮腺炎等常见的儿童疾病都 可能会给他们造成巨大的伤害。天花的一次降临便可能会把一个印第安部落从地球上整个儿 抹去，因为它会同时袭击几乎每一个人，不会留下什么人来照顾病人。由于欧洲人带来的种 种疾病，美洲土著人口的数量以惊人的速度下降，死亡率高达 90%。因此，哥伦布发现新 大陆被称为“世界历史上人口统计学的最大灾难”也就不足为奇了。 1.5 英国宗教改革（1534） 文艺复兴（Renaissance，1300—1650）始于十四世纪的意大利，不久便迅速遍及整个西 欧，宣告着中世纪（Middle Ages，476—1453）的结束和现代文明的肇始，同时带来了世界 艺术、政体、哲学和科学上的进步。此时，艺术要展现的不再限于充满着宗教意味的神圣世 6
界，艺术家及他们的崇拜者越来越愿意用一种世俗的眼光来看待生活。现在，人们听到的最 重要的音乐是世俗的而非宗教的：伟大的建筑师建造的更多的是宫殿和市镇大厅，而非教堂 和修道院。哲学家开始强调那句具有异教性质的希腊箴言，“人是一切事物的度量衡”。雕 塑家在他们的作品中也赋予人更多的传奇色彩，凸显人在生活中的作用。画家也开始更加逼 真写实地描绘人的脸和形体，更多的是描绘地球和人类，而较少创作有关永恒、天堂和天使 主题的作品。思想家和哲学家越来越多地重视现代科学研究，他们深入思考，质疑权威和传 统，并向它们发起挑战，不太关注中世纪以来的宗教事务。科学仪器的发明，如1590年的 显微镜和1609年的望远镜，都迅速激发起人们对科学探索的兴趣。自从哥白尼(Nicolaus Copernicus,1473一1543)于1543年出版了《论天体的旋转》后，大批有文化的人们不再 相信地球是宇宙中心的说法。此时，人们似乎越来越有能力理解和控制自己的环境，创造自 己的生活，甚至决定自己的命运。对古希腊和希伯来文学的重新研究促使人们开始重新认识 《圣经》并仔细研习其文本。在16世纪，文艺复兴时期的新人文主义和批判精神反过来也 推动了宗教改革的进程，而宗教革命又带来了中世纪基督教的结束和新教(Protestantism) 的崛起。 中世纪时期，罗马天主教(Roman Catholic Church)在西欧一度占据主导地位。与当时 的其他社会体制一样，天主教也是一种等级制度。教会的最高领袖是罗马教皇，他的下面依 次是其他教会等级，如红衣主教、大主教和主教等。最下层的是各教区牧师和修道院的修道 士与修女。中世纪时期的等级制度虽然严格，但教皇的权威还是相对薄弱，许多欧洲人在生 活中不太感觉到教皇的威严。到15世纪时，随着欧洲的君主越来越强大，教皇的权力也越 来越大。天主教会在欧洲各地谋取土地，向教徒征收什一税(tithing)以增加收入。教会职 员继续着l3世纪向教徒们出售“免罪券”(Indulgence)的作法，并向人们承诺，一个人通过 积攒基督和圣徒的高尚操行，充实个人的“功德库”，可以减少他在炼狱中遭受折磨的时间。 此时，天主教和罗马教皇的权势如日中天，但却越来越漠视广大民众的宗教利益。教皇和主 教们炫耀自己的财富，神职员们参预世俗政治，文化程度不高的教区牧师们大都对自己的责 任和义务掉以轻心。面对十五至十六世纪整个欧洲大陆发生的令人不知所措的变化，如，贫 富差距日渐扩大，价格飘升，美洲殖民化等等，人们对于从宗教中寻求慰藉并获得救赎的渴 望越来越强烈。 马丁·路德(Martin Luther,.1483一l546)正是在这种普通大众情绪高涨的情况下出现的， 他所倡导的新教运动非常契合当时欧洲的文艺复兴精神。和许多人一样，路德也很担忧自己 未来的命运。他深信自己是有罪的，但他未能从天主教中获得任何慰藉。天主教告诉人们， 一个人可以通过信仰上帝和积德行善来获得拯救，譬如，帮助他人，参加圣礼，朝拜圣城， 向基督和圣徒祈祷。但路德坚信，上帝并没有要求罪人去寻求拯救。按他的理解，拯救只能 来自于信仰本身，它是上帝赐予那些罪人的“免费礼物”。1513年，路德发展了“唯信称义 ((justification by faith alone)”的理念，认为一个人能过一种道德高尚的生活并非其获得救赎 的原因而是其结果。信徒们只要通过阅读《圣经》而相信自己能够获得救赎，那么他也就会 按照宗教道德来规范自己。1517年，路德更加强烈地批判天主教的等级制度。他张贴了95 篇论文，抨击天主教以出售“免罪券”的形式向人们兜售“救赎”的作法，同时也表达了众多虔 诚教徒的焦虑以及对教会等级机构漠视教众的这种焦虑的愤慨。路德随即被教皇逐出教会， 但他变得更加激进，开始宣扬平信徒皆为祭司(the priesthood of all believers)”的理念。他 坚持认为，天主教会及其神职人员并不可靠，只有《圣经》本身是正确无误的。每个人都应 当阅读《圣经》，亲自与上帝神会，而无需通过教会的等级制度和神职人员来与上帝亲近。 法国神学家约翰·加尔文(John Calvin,.1509一1564)曾是一名律师，他是路德之后影 响最大的新教领袖。加尔文同意路德的观点，认为人们通过积德行善并不能获得救赎。不过， 他们两人的上帝观有所不同。路德眼中的上帝是一个充满博爱的神祇，对负有原罪的人类寄 7
界，艺术家及他们的崇拜者越来越愿意用一种世俗的眼光来看待生活。现在，人们听到的最 重要的音乐是世俗的而非宗教的；伟大的建筑师建造的更多的是宫殿和市镇大厅，而非教堂 和修道院。哲学家开始强调那句具有异教性质的希腊箴言，“人是一切事物的度量衡”。 雕 塑家在他们的作品中也赋予人更多的传奇色彩，凸显人在生活中的作用。画家也开始更加逼 真写实地描绘人的脸和形体，更多的是描绘地球和人类，而较少创作有关永恒、天堂和天使 主题的作品。思想家和哲学家越来越多地重视现代科学研究，他们深入思考，质疑权威和传 统，并向它们发起挑战，不太关注中世纪以来的宗教事务。科学仪器的发明，如 1590 年的 显微镜和 1609 年的望远镜，都迅速激发起人们对科学探索的兴趣。自从哥白尼（Nicolaus Copernicus，1473—1543）于 1543 年出版了《论天体的旋转》后，大批有文化的人们不再 相信地球是宇宙中心的说法。此时，人们似乎越来越有能力理解和控制自己的环境，创造自 己的生活，甚至决定自己的命运。对古希腊和希伯来文学的重新研究促使人们开始重新认识 《圣经》并仔细研习其文本。在 16 世纪，文艺复兴时期的新人文主义和批判精神反过来也 推动了宗教改革的进程，而宗教革命又带来了中世纪基督教的结束和新教（Protestantism） 的崛起。 中世纪时期，罗马天主教（Roman Catholic Church）在西欧一度占据主导地位。与当时 的其他社会体制一样，天主教也是一种等级制度。教会的最高领袖是罗马教皇，他的下面依 次是其他教会等级，如红衣主教、大主教和主教等。最下层的是各教区牧师和修道院的修道 士与修女。中世纪时期的等级制度虽然严格，但教皇的权威还是相对薄弱，许多欧洲人在生 活中不太感觉到教皇的威严。到 15 世纪时，随着欧洲的君主越来越强大，教皇的权力也越 来越大。天主教会在欧洲各地谋取土地，向教徒征收什一税（tithing）以增加收入。教会职 员继续着 13 世纪向教徒们出售“免罪券”（Indulgence）的作法，并向人们承诺，一个人通过 积攒基督和圣徒的高尚操行，充实个人的“功德库”，可以减少他在炼狱中遭受折磨的时间。 此时，天主教和罗马教皇的权势如日中天，但却越来越漠视广大民众的宗教利益。教皇和主 教们炫耀自己的财富，神职员们参预世俗政治，文化程度不高的教区牧师们大都对自己的责 任和义务掉以轻心。面对十五至十六世纪整个欧洲大陆发生的令人不知所措的变化，如，贫 富差距日渐扩大，价格飙升，美洲殖民化等等，人们对于从宗教中寻求慰藉并获得救赎的渴 望越来越强烈。 马丁·路德（Martin Luther，1483—1546）正是在这种普通大众情绪高涨的情况下出现的， 他所倡导的新教运动非常契合当时欧洲的文艺复兴精神。和许多人一样，路德也很担忧自己 未来的命运。他深信自己是有罪的，但他未能从天主教中获得任何慰藉。天主教告诉人们， 一个人可以通过信仰上帝和积德行善来获得拯救，譬如，帮助他人，参加圣礼，朝拜圣城， 向基督和圣徒祈祷。但路德坚信，上帝并没有要求罪人去寻求拯救。按他的理解，拯救只能 来自于信仰本身，它是上帝赐予那些罪人的“免费礼物”。1513 年，路德发展了“唯信称义 （justification by faith alone）”的理念，认为一个人能过一种道德高尚的生活并非其获得救赎 的原因而是其结果。信徒们只要通过阅读《圣经》而相信自己能够获得救赎，那么他也就会 按照宗教道德来规范自己。1517 年，路德更加强烈地批判天主教的等级制度。他张贴了 95 篇论文，抨击天主教以出售“免罪券”的形式向人们兜售“救赎”的作法，同时也表达了众多虔 诚教徒的焦虑以及对教会等级机构漠视教众的这种焦虑的愤慨。路德随即被教皇逐出教会， 但他变得更加激进，开始宣扬“平信徒皆为祭司（the priesthood of all believers）”的理念。他 坚持认为，天主教会及其神职人员并不可靠，只有《圣经》本身是正确无误的。每个人都应 当阅读《圣经》，亲自与上帝神会，而无需通过教会的等级制度和神职人员来与上帝亲近。 法国神学家约翰·加尔文（John Calvin，1509—1564）曾是一名律师，他是路德之后影 响最大的新教领袖。加尔文同意路德的观点，认为人们通过积德行善并不能获得救赎。不过， 他们两人的上帝观有所不同。路德眼中的上帝是一个充满博爱的神祇，对负有原罪的人类寄 7
予宽恕，而加尔文心中的上帝则是一个令人敬畏的君王，他全知，全能，操纵着人类的历史 命运并引导人类最终战胜撒旦。加尔文相信，为了取得最终胜利，上帝早己选好一些人作为 世人的楷模。这些人，意即圣徒或选民，注定会步入天堂获得永生。加尔文这一“预定论 (Predestination)”引导出他的另一个理论，“神召论(doctrine of calling)”。“神召论”认为， 选民在上帝的召唤下，将会为建立一个美德和慈善的社会而不懈地努力：一个人要想知道自 己是否属于上帝的选民，他就必须像一个圣徒那样奋斗或生活。天主教信奉行善的重要性， 加尔文则强调善行本身。换言之，天主教推崇的是通过行善以赚得天堂的入场券，加尔文信 奉的则是，如果一个人能够成功地控制自我，把自己的生活和整个社会秩序化，那就表明此 人可能是上帝的选民。他号召基督徒行动起来，重塑自己的社会和政府，以求符合上帝在《圣 经》中所制定的律法。加尔文去了瑞士，在他的领导下，日内瓦成为政教合一的神权共和国 和宗教改革的中心，废除了天主教的主教制，建立了长老制，长老一般由有威信的平信徒担 任。加尔文希望欧洲的所有地方都能以日内瓦神权共和国为楷模。 正当宗教改革之风席卷欧洲大陆的时候，英格兰国王亨利八世(Henry VⅡ，1491一1547) 也在谋划着英国的宗教改革。不过，他并不像路德和加尔文那样雄心勃勃要对天主教进行革 命，而只想有个男性子嗣来继承都铎(Tudor)王朝。亨利八世的妻子凯瑟琳(Catherine of Aragon,1485一1536)的多次生育都告失败。最后，当凯瑟琳生下一女玛丽·都铎(Mary Tudor, 1516一1558)后，亨利八世的目标变得不再那么简单低调了，他请求教皇宣布废止他与凯瑟 琳的婚姻。但不幸的是，凯瑟琳是西班牙阿拉贡的公主，当政的西班牙国王是凯瑟琳的侄子， 而罗马处于势力强大的西班牙的掌控之中，教皇担心得罪西班牙，因此没敢答应亨利八世的 离婚请求。英国宗教改革正是从这个僵局中爆发的。此时，英国人普遍抱怨天主教在英格兰 的统治：天主教牧师不受英国法庭的审判：罗马税制大肆泛滥：许多高层神职人员挥霍无度： 普通的牧师和修道士普遍无知和堕落。此外，反对天主教的宗教人士不断在呼吁改革，要求 对教会和国家之间的财政和法律联系进行清算也不再被平常百姓视为大逆不道。不久，情况 变得越来越清楚，教皇只是在推诿拖延亨利八世的离婚事宜，因为他既不愿意得罪英国，又 不愿意得罪西班牙。亨利八世意识到这一点后，自行与凯瑟琳离婚，然后同他的情人安妮·博 林(Anne Boleyn,1504一1536)结婚。1534年，亨利八世建立了英国国教，并自封为教会 领袖，完全无视教皇的领导。这一举动大大扩大了他与罗马之间的分裂。当他的新婚只给他 带来一个女儿，即伊丽莎白·都铎(Elizabeth Tudor,1533一1603)时，他于1536年伪造了 一个叛国罪强加给博林并将其斩首。1537年，亨利八世的第三任妻子终于给他生了个宝贝 儿子，爱德华·都铎(Edward Tudor,1537一1553)，但却也因为产后失血过多而死去。 亨利八世离婚并获得罗马教会在英格兰的资产后，并未继续其宗教改革。他和英国议 会只是想借用新兴的英国国教的名义来统治旧的天主教而非根本改变信仰。他们迫害了一些 反对旧天主教信仰的新教徒和一些反对英国国教统治的天主教徒。在1547年亨利八世死后 爱德华四世统治的六年期间，新教徒获得了一席之地，但当1553年爱德华同父异母的姐姐 玛丽一世成为女王后，新教徒却遭到了疯狂的迫害。玛丽一世因为残酷镇压新教徒而被后人 称为“血腥玛丽”。她嫁给西班牙的菲利普二世(PhilipⅡ，1528一1598)，重建了罗马教皇在 英格兰的权威。她与西班牙人的婚姻也将英格兰卷入了一场西班牙与法国的战争。在那场战 争中，位于英吉利海峡最窄处的法国北部城市加莱(Calais)在英国统治了300年后又转到 了西班牙手中。1558年，玛丽的行为在国内引起了强烈的反感，她最终在失望和痛苦中死 去。她死后，伊丽莎白都铎继位。伊丽莎白一世自称是新教的拥护者，但并非激进的加尔 文主义者。尽管一些新教徒强烈要求英国国教清除大主教，废去繁琐的宗教仪式，擦除任何 天主教的痕迹，她仍然坚决抵制了过激的改革。作为一个才华卓越、聪明睿智的女王，伊丽 莎白专制独裁，个性张扬，拥有绝对的自信和非凡的口才。正是在她的统治下，大英帝国才 得以复苏经济，重振政治，并开始其正式的美洲探险之旅。 8
予宽恕，而加尔文心中的上帝则是一个令人敬畏的君王，他全知，全能，操纵着人类的历史 命运并引导人类最终战胜撒旦。加尔文相信，为了取得最终胜利，上帝早已选好一些人作为 世人的楷模。这些人，意即圣徒或选民，注定会步入天堂获得永生。加尔文这一“预定论 （Predestination）”引导出他的另一个理论，“神召论（doctrine of calling）”。“神召论”认为， 选民在上帝的召唤下，将会为建立一个美德和慈善的社会而不懈地努力；一个人要想知道自 己是否属于上帝的选民，他就必须像一个圣徒那样奋斗或生活。天主教信奉行善的重要性， 加尔文则强调善行本身。换言之，天主教推崇的是通过行善以赚得天堂的入场券，加尔文信 奉的则是，如果一个人能够成功地控制自我，把自己的生活和整个社会秩序化，那就表明此 人可能是上帝的选民。他号召基督徒行动起来，重塑自己的社会和政府，以求符合上帝在《圣 经》中所制定的律法。加尔文去了瑞士，在他的领导下，日内瓦成为政教合一的神权共和国 和宗教改革的中心，废除了天主教的主教制，建立了长老制，长老一般由有威信的平信徒担 任。加尔文希望欧洲的所有地方都能以日内瓦神权共和国为楷模。 正当宗教改革之风席卷欧洲大陆的时候，英格兰国王亨利八世（Henry VIII，1491—1547） 也在谋划着英国的宗教改革。不过，他并不像路德和加尔文那样雄心勃勃要对天主教进行革 命，而只想有个男性子嗣来继承都铎（Tudor）王朝。亨利八世的妻子凯瑟琳（Catherine of Aragon，1485—1536）的多次生育都告失败。最后，当凯瑟琳生下一女玛丽·都铎（Mary Tudor， 1516—1558）后，亨利八世的目标变得不再那么简单低调了，他请求教皇宣布废止他与凯瑟 琳的婚姻。但不幸的是，凯瑟琳是西班牙阿拉贡的公主，当政的西班牙国王是凯瑟琳的侄子， 而罗马处于势力强大的西班牙的掌控之中，教皇担心得罪西班牙，因此没敢答应亨利八世的 离婚请求。英国宗教改革正是从这个僵局中爆发的。此时，英国人普遍抱怨天主教在英格兰 的统治：天主教牧师不受英国法庭的审判；罗马税制大肆泛滥；许多高层神职人员挥霍无度； 普通的牧师和修道士普遍无知和堕落。此外，反对天主教的宗教人士不断在呼吁改革，要求 对教会和国家之间的财政和法律联系进行清算也不再被平常百姓视为大逆不道。不久，情况 变得越来越清楚，教皇只是在推诿拖延亨利八世的离婚事宜，因为他既不愿意得罪英国，又 不愿意得罪西班牙。亨利八世意识到这一点后，自行与凯瑟琳离婚，然后同他的情人安妮·博 林（Anne Boleyn，1504—1536）结婚。1534 年，亨利八世建立了英国国教，并自封为教会 领袖，完全无视教皇的领导。这一举动大大扩大了他与罗马之间的分裂。当他的新婚只给他 带来一个女儿，即伊丽莎白·都铎（Elizabeth Tudor，1533—1603）时，他于 1536 年伪造了 一个叛国罪强加给博林并将其斩首。1537 年，亨利八世的第三任妻子终于给他生了个宝贝 儿子，爱德华·都铎（Edward Tudor，1537—1553），但却也因为产后失血过多而死去。 亨利八世离婚并获得罗马教会在英格兰的资产后，并未继续其宗教改革。他和英国议 会只是想借用新兴的英国国教的名义来统治旧的天主教而非根本改变信仰。他们迫害了一些 反对旧天主教信仰的新教徒和一些反对英国国教统治的天主教徒。在 1547 年亨利八世死后 爱德华四世统治的六年期间，新教徒获得了一席之地，但当 1553 年爱德华同父异母的姐姐 玛丽一世成为女王后，新教徒却遭到了疯狂的迫害。玛丽一世因为残酷镇压新教徒而被后人 称为“血腥玛丽”。她嫁给西班牙的菲利普二世（Philip II，1528—1598），重建了罗马教皇在 英格兰的权威。她与西班牙人的婚姻也将英格兰卷入了一场西班牙与法国的战争。在那场战 争中，位于英吉利海峡最窄处的法国北部城市加莱（Calais）在英国统治了 300 年后又转到 了西班牙手中。1558 年，玛丽的行为在国内引起了强烈的反感，她最终在失望和痛苦中死 去。她死后，伊丽莎白·都铎继位。伊丽莎白一世自称是新教的拥护者，但并非激进的加尔 文主义者。尽管一些新教徒强烈要求英国国教清除大主教，废去繁琐的宗教仪式，擦除任何 天主教的痕迹，她仍然坚决抵制了过激的改革。作为一个才华卓越、聪明睿智的女王，伊丽 莎白专制独裁，个性张扬，拥有绝对的自信和非凡的口才。正是在她的统治下，大英帝国才 得以复苏经济，重振政治，并开始其正式的美洲探险之旅。 8
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