788 RICHARD S.HOROWITZ overseeing the security [of the empire].It is necessary to specially establish official positions so that those appointed can take particular responsibility [for foreign affairs].Let the Zongli Yamen be changed into the Bureau of Foreign Affairs,and placed in rank ahead of the Six Boards...35 The edict is interesting in several respects.It obliquely admitted the disastrous results of Qing foreign policy in general and the Boxer episode in particular,and suggested that this failure had origins in defects in existing state institutions.Without question the key reforms in the edict were a direct result of foreign demands.But considered in the political context of the Empress Dowager's January edict,the transformation of the Zongli Yamen into the Bureau of Foreign Affairs was also in harmony with a new perception that insti- tutional reform was essential if the empire was to survive. The changes were not simply in name.The July edict began a systematic remaking of the old Zongli Yamen.Over the next five years both the organization and the scope of activity of the Ministry of Foreign affairs were transformed.As demanded by the powers, the reorganization began at the top.The old executive council was eliminated and replaced with a new model:a single president,with two vice presidents,and subordinate to them were to be two Coun- cilors and below them two secretaries,establishing a very clear hier- archy.The Ministry was organized into four major departments defined by function and the practice of sharing subordinate staff with the Grand Council or the Six Boards was terminated.37 At the same time the Ministry of Foreign Affairs saw its scope of activity gradually narrowed.The Zongli Yamen's role,defined by the inchoate category of yangwu(foreign matters),meant that a great many areas central to the creation of a modern state and requiring technical expertise,such as railways,telegraphs and mining,fell into the Yamen's purview.One of the most important subordinate agen- cies of the Zongli Yamen,the Imperial Maritime Customs Service led by Robert Hart,was a crucial source of revenue and expertise and would,within a European system,be overseen by a Finance ministry. Gradually,as the reform process progressed,some of these elements were assigned to other ministries.In 1903 a Ministry of Commerce was created to take over major commercial and industrial pro- grams-although it was badly under-financed and achieved little,and 36 Qing shi lu (Beijing:Zhonghua Shuju,1987),v.58,391. 37 Wang Yanwei (comp.),Qingji waijiao shiliao(Taipei:Wenhai chubanshe,1964), 148:26-9-788 RICHARD S. HOROWITZ overseeing the security [of the empire]. It is necessary to specially establish official positions so that those appointed can take particular responsibility [for foreign affairs]. Let the Zongli Yamen be changed into the Bureau of Foreign Affairs, and placed in rank ahead of the Six Boards...36 The edict is interesting in several respects. It obliquely admitted the disastrous results of Qing foreign policy in general and the Boxer episode in particular, and suggested that this failure had origins in defects in existing state institutions. Without question the key reforms in the edict were a direct result of foreign demands. But considered in the political context of the Empress Dowager's January edict, the transformation of the Zongli Yamen into the Bureau of Foreign Affairs was also in harmony with a new perception that insti￾tutional reform was essential if the empire was to survive. The changes were not simply in name. The July edict began a systematic remaking of the old Zongli Yamen. Over the next five years both the organization and the scope of activity of the Ministry of Foreign affairs were transformed. As demanded by the powers, the reorganization began at the top. The old executive council was eliminated and replaced with a new model: a single president, with two vice presidents, and subordinate to them were to be two Coun￾cilors and below them two secretaries, establishing a very clear hier￾archy. The Ministry was organized into four major departments defined by function and the practice of sharing subordinate staff with the Grand Council or the Six Boards was terminated.3' At the same time the Ministry of Foreign Affairs saw its scope of activity gradually narrowed. The Zongli Yamen's role, defined by the inchoate category of yangwu (foreign matters), meant that a great many areas central to the creation of a modern state and requiring technical expertise, such as railways, telegraphs and mining, fell into the Yamen's purview. One of the most important subordinate agen￾cies of the Zongli Yamen, the Imperial Maritime Customs Service led by Robert Hart, was a crucial source of revenue and expertise and would, within a European system, be overseen by a Finance ministry. Gradually, as the reform process progressed, some of these elements were assigned to other ministries. In 1903 a Ministry of Commerce was created to take over major commercial and industrial pro￾grams-although it was badly under-financed and achieved little, and 36 Qing shi lu (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1987), v. 58, 391. 37 Wang Yanwei (comp.), Qingfi waijiao shiliao (Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1964), 148: 26-9