CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i A NOTE ON CURRENCY x CHRONOLOGY xv ABBREVIATIONS xix INTRODUCTION 1 I.CONSTITUTIONALISM AND IIS FAILURE Social Sources Intellectual Sources 18 The Problem of Failure 25 II.FACTIONALISM AND POLITICAL RECRUITMENT 27 Factions Defined 29 Structural Characteristics of Factions Characteristics of Factional Politics 37 Early Republican Factions 44 Political Recruitment and "Connections" 47 Connections,Factions,and the Failure of Constitutionalism 58 IIL.THE SETTING OF CONFLICT:THE PEKING GOVERNMENT,1916-28 59 Peking's Role and the Support of the Powers 59 Structure of the Peking Government 65 The Flavor of Peking Politics 69 Government Finance and the Role of the New-Style Banks 74 IV.THE RENEWAL OF LEGITIMACY,1918 9 The Election of Parliament 92 防