There is a group of compounds in which carbon forms only two bonds. These neutral divalent carbon compounds are called carbenes. Most carbenes are highly unstable compounds that are capable of only fleeting existence. Soon after carbenes are formed they usually react with another molecule

In the addition of HX to an unsymmetrically substituted alkene, the hydrogen atom adds to the carbon atom of the double bond that already has the greater number of hydrogen atoms and that the X group adds to the carbon having more alkyl substituents. Markovnikov’s rule can be restated by saying that, in the addition of HX to an alkene, the more stable carbocation intermediate is formed

SN2 reactions are highly useful in organic synthesis because they enable use to convert one functional group into another —— functional group transformation (functional group interconversion)

The C—X bond of alkyl halides is polarized. The carbon atom bears a partial positive charge, The halogen atom a partial negative charge

An equimolar mixture of two enantiomers is called a racemic form (either a racemate or a racemic mixture). A racemic form shows no rotation of plane￾polarized light

The primary source of alkanes is petroleum Natural gas consists chiefly of methane, but ethane, propane, butane, and isobutane are also present. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that must be refined into different fraction before it can be used

An acid is a substance that can donate (or lose) a proton, A base is a substance that can accept (or remove) a proton

Functional groups The structural features that make it possible to classify compounds by reactivity are called functional groups. A functional group is a part of a larger molecule and is composed of an atom or a group of atoms that have a characteristic chemical behavior. The Chemistry of every organic molecules

Quinones are an interesting and valuable class of compounds because of their oxidation-reduction, or redox, properties. The redox properties of quinones are important to the functioning of living cells, where compounds called ubiquinones(泛醌) act as biochemical oxidizing agents to mediate the electro-transfer processes involved in energy production

按照爱因斯坦的相对性原理，一切物理定律在所有惯性系中都是一样的，在洛仑兹变换下形式不变。对经典力学定律显然不能满足要求，这就需要对其加以改造，就产生了相对论力学